Introduction to Logic

ForewardPrefaceAcknowledgments PART I  LOGIC AND LAGUAGE SECTION A  REASONING  Chapter 1     Basic Logical Concepts1.1 What Logic Is1.2 Propositions and Arguments1.3 Recognizing Arguments1.4 Arguments and Explanations1.5 Deductive and Inductive Arguments1.6 Validity and Truth Chapter 2    Analyzing Arguments2.1 Paraphrasing Arguments2.2 Diagramming Arguments2.3 Complex Argumentative Passages2.4 Problems in Reasoning SECTION B INFORMAL LOGIC Chapter 3    Language and Definitions3.1 Language Functions3.2 Emotive Language, Neutral Language, and Disputes3.3 Disputes and Ambiguity3.4 Definitions and Their Uses3.5 The Structure of Definitions: Extension and Intension3.6 Definition by Genus and Difference Chapter 4      Fallacies4.1 What Is a Fallacy?4.2 Classification of Fallacies4.3 Fallacies of Relevance4.4 Fallacies of Defective Induction4.5 Fallacies of Presumption4.6 Fallacies of Ambiguity Part II  Deduction Section A    Classical Logic Chapter 5      Categorical Propositions5.1 The Theory of Deduction5.2 Classes and Categorical Propositions5.3 The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions5.4 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution5.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition5.6 Further Immediate Inferences5.7 Existential Import and the Interpretation of Categorical Propositions5.8 Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions Chapter 6      Categorical Syllogisms6.1 Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms6.2 The Formal Nature of Syllogistic Argument6.3 Venn Diagram Technique for Testing Syllogisms6.4 Syllogistic Rules and Syllogistic Fallacies6.5 Exposition of the Fifteen Valid Forms of the Categorical SyllogismAppendix: Deduction of the Fifteen Valid Forms of the Categorical Syllogism Chapter 7      Syllogisms in Ordinary Language7.1 Syllogistic Arguments7.2 Reducing the Number of Terms to Three7.3 Translating Categorical Propositions into Standard Form7.4 Uniform Translation7.5 Enthymemes7.6 Sorites7.7 Disjunctive and Hypothetical Syllogisms7.8 The Dilemma Section B    Modern Logic Chapter 8      Symbolic Logic8.1 Modern Logic and Its Symbolic Language8.2 The Symbols for Conjunction, Negation, and Disjunction8.3 Conditional Statements and Material Implication8.4 Argument Forms and Refutation by Logical Analogy8.5 The Precise Meaning of “Invalid” and “Valid”8.6 Testing Argument Validity Using Truth Tables8.7 Some Common Argument Forms8. 8 Statement Forms and Material Equivalence8.9 Logical Equivalence8.10 The Three “Laws of Thought” Chapter 9      Methods of Deduction9.1  Formal Proof of Validity9.2  The Elementary Valid Argument Forms9.3  Formal Proofs of Validity Exhibited9.4  Constructing Formal Proofs of Validity9.5  Constructing More Extended Formal Proofs9.6  Expanding the Rules of Inference: Replacement Rules9.7  The System of Natural Deduction9.8  Constructing Formal Proofs Using the Nineteen Rules of Inference9.9  Proof of Invalidity9.10 Inconsistency9.11 Indirect Proof of Validity9.12 Shorter Truth-Table Technique Chapter 10     Quantification Theory10.1 The Need for Quantification10.2 Singular Propositions10.3 Universal and Existential Quantifiers10.4 Traditional Subject—Predicate Propositions10.5 Proving Validity10.6 Proving Invalidity10.7 Asyllogistic Inference Part III  Induction Section A    Analogy and Causation Chapter 11       Analogical Reasoning11.1 Induction and Deduction Revisited11.2 Argument by Analogy11.3 Appraising Analogical Arguments11.4 Refutation by Logical Analogy Chapter 12     Causal Reasoning12.1  Cause and Effect12.2  Causal Laws and the Uniformity of Nature12.3  Induction by Simple Enumeration12.4  Methods of Causal Analysis12.5  Limitations of Inductive Techniques Section B    Science and Probability Chapter 13       Science and Hypothesis13.1 Scientific Explanation13.2 Scientific Inquiry: Hypothesis and Confirmation13.3 Evaluating Scientific Explanations13.4 Classification as Hypothesis Chapter 14     Probability14.1     Alternative Conceptions of Probability14.2     The Probability Calculus14.3     Probability in Everyday Life Appendix Solutions to Selected Exercises Glossary/Index