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LATINI.

During the more flourishing epoch of the republic, the term Latini is employed merely to describe those inhabitants of Latium who were not Roman citizens. But after the whole of Italy had received the Civitas, the term Latini denoted the inhabitants of states who although not Roman citizens, enjoyed certain privileges, short of the full Civitas; thus occupying a position intermediate between Cives and Peregrini.

The term employed to designate these rights was Ius Latii or Latinitas, or simply Latium, for Pliny mentions certain Alpine tribes as Latio donati.

The Ius Latii was bestowed, soon after the social war, upon all the Transpadani, and by Vespasian upon all Spain.

COLONIAE.

A portion of all conquered territory was usually administered by the Senate, as a source of revenue, and another portion was frequently divided among the poorer Roman citizens, who established themselves in the conquered country as cultivators (coloni). The settlements thus formed (coloniae) were in reality so many permanent posts of occupation, or garrisons, fortifications, and watch towers (praesidia-propugnacula-speculae). They were excellent nurseries for hardy soldiers, and they provided an outlet for the more needy portion of a rapidly increasing population. Indeed, in later times, colonies were very frequently formed to make a provision for a poor and discontented populace; and on many occasions, a portion of the land which was the property of the state (Ager Publicus) was given up.

When it had been resolved to plant a colony (coloniam deducere), a law was passed by the Senate (ex senatus consulto), fixing the quantity of land to be set apart, and the manner in which it was to be divided. At the same time, commissioners (curatores), were nominated to make all the arrangements necessary.

Those who were desirous to join the settlement were invited to give in their names (dare nomina), and when all the preliminaries were arranged, the whole body marched forth with colours flying (sub vexillo), to take possession of their new homes.

Colonies were divided into two classes

1. Coloniae civium Romanorum consisted exclusively of Roman citizens (coloni ab urbe missi) who retained all their rights and privileges.

The Coloniae Maritimae belonged to this class, being colonies of Roman citizens, and were distinguished only by their position on the

sea coast, and by some peculiar exemptions which the inhabitants (coloni maritimi) enjoyed or claimed.

2. Coloniae Latinae consisted of a mixed body of Romans and members of some of the Latin states.

Both alike had a regular government, an imitation, on a small scale, of the government at Rome-(effigies parvae simulacraque populi Romani).

After the termination of the social war, the distinctions between the Coloniae civium Romanorum and the Coloniae Latinae, as well as any inequality in their social and political position, were completely removed, in so far as Italy was concerned.

Coloniae Militares.-These were composed entirely of veterans, who received allotments of land as a reward for their services. The oppression and misery to which these distributions gave rise during the civil wars of Marius, Sulla, Cæsar, and the Triumvirs, are familiar to every reader of history

After the accession of Augustus, the military colonies were planted in the provinces as a matter of necessity, and not unfrequently on the disturbed frontiers as a matter of policy.

MUNICIPIA.

Many towns in Italy formed, at a very early period, an alliance with Rome, upon terms of perfect equality (foedus aequum); many others submitted to the Roman arms without a struggle, or after resistance secured an honourable treaty. The whole of these were named Municipia; and their inhabitants were designated as Municipes, words compounded of Munia and Capere. Two characteristics were common to all Municipia

1. The inhabitants of a Municipium, if they came to reside at Rome, were liable to the same obligations (munia) as ordinary Roman citizens.

2. The Municipes themselves administered the internal affairs of their own town.

Eventually, a great proportion of the states of Italy entered into an alliance (foedus) of some sort with Rome.

We may divide Municipia into three classes.

1. Municipia enjoying Isopolity. In these there was simply an alliance on equal terms between Rome and one of the neighbouring towns, in virtue of which Connubium and Commercium were established, so that intermarriage and trading were freely allowed, while both parties remained entirely independent in their domestic and foreign relations. To this class belonged the Municipia of the earliest period, but they altogether disappeared after the subjugation of Latium, and were succeeded by―

2. Municipia sine Suffragio.-These enjoyed Connubium and Commercium with Rome, but could not vote in the popular assemblies, nor be elected to any political office in the city. They retained the internal regulation of their own affairs, which were administered by a senate (decuriones), elected their own magistrates, and administered justice according to their own local laws and usages (leges municipales) but in all their relations with foreign states were entirely subject to Rome.

3. Municipia cum Suffragio enjoyed the same privileges as the foregoing, with this addition, that all the Municipes were enrolled in a Roman tribe, and accordingly, when resident at Rome, were Cives Romani optimo iure.

Municipia after the Social War.-All the cities in Italy after the termination of the Social War became Municipia cum Suffragio; and the distinctions between Municipia and Coloniae were in a great measure removed. In process of time, many cities in foreign countries, especially in Spain, were raised to the rank of Municipia.

PRAEFECTURAE.

The characteristic of a Praefectura, from which it received its name, and by which it was distinguished from an ordinary Colonia or Municipium, was, that the chief magistrate was not chosen by the citizens of the town, but that a PRAEFECTUS iuri dicundo was sent annually from Rome to administer justice.

After the passing of the Lex Iulia and the Lex Plautia Papiria, all Praefecturae in Italy, as well as the Municipia and Coloniae, received the full Civitas. Great changes were introduced, at this period, into the internal administration of the provincial towns; and although many retained their ancient title of Praefecturae, they were no longer under the jurisdiction of Praefecti.

Socii. Nomen Latinum.-During the period between the subjugation of Italy and the social war, the citizens of all those Italian states which did not enjoy the full Roman Civitas, were comprehended under the general appellation of Socii.

The citizens of the towns who formed the Latin confederacy and the Coloniae Latinae, are sometimes distinguished from the rest of the Socii as Latini-Socii Latini-Nomen Latinum-Socii Latini nominis, and must be carefully distinguished from the members of those states who, after the social war, enjoyed the legal rights designated as Ius Latii-Latinitas-Latium.

We now proceed to consider the condition of

SERVI.

A slave, when regarded as a person bound to obey the commands

of a master, was called Servus; as property, Mancipium; as a saleable commodity, Venalis; as a domestic, Famulus or Puer; but these words, in ordinary language, were employed without distinction. The whole body of slaves in one mansion was comprehended under the designation Familia.

Persons might become slaves in different ways.

1. By Birth. The child of a female slave (ancilla) was a slave, whatever might be the condition of the father, and belonged to the master of the mother. A slave born in the house of his master was called Verna.

2. By Captivity.-Prisoners of war (captivi-bello capti) were, by the ancient law of nations, the absolute property of the captors, and, as such, were either retained for the service of the state, and employed in public works, or were sold by auction. The practice, in early times, was to expose captives for sale with chaplets round their heads, and hence the phrase, sub corona vendere s. venire, i. e., to sell, or to be sold, for a slave.

3. By Judicial Sentence.-In certain cases freeborn Roman citizens were condemned to be sold as slaves, as a punishment for heinous offences.

Condition of a Slave.—A slave had no personal nor political rights. He was under the absolute power (dominium-potestas dominica) of his master (dominus), who could scourge, brand, torture, or put him to death at pleasure. Under the republic there was no restriction whatsoever placed on the caprice or cruelty of masters; and it was not until the reign of Hadrian that a master was forbidden to put his slave to death, unless condemned by a court of justice—an ordinance confirmed and enforced by Antoninus Pius.

Contubernium.—A slave could not contract a regular marriage ; but any connection which he might form with one of his own class, was termed Contubernium. The offspring of these alliances were the Vernae.

Injuries to Slaves.-A slave being regarded as a thing rather than a person, if he were insulted, or assaulted, or killed, the law did not regard this as a wrong done to the slave, but to his master, who might bring an action, under the Lex Aquillia, for the injury suffered by his property.

Peculium. — Although no slave could accumulate property independent of his master, it was the practice to allow a slave to retain any property which he might have acquired honestly. This hoard was termed the Peculium of the slave, and sometimes amounted to a sum which enabled him to purchase his freedom. Occasionally a slave purchased a slave for himself, who was termed his Vicarius. Slave-Dealing.-Slave-dealing became, towards the close of the

republic, and under the empire, a very lucrative trade. The Mangones s. Venalitii collected slaves from all quarters, and disposed of the least valuable (mancipia viliora) in open market, and of the more precious in private shops (tabernae). Those sold in the market were stripped and exhibited in a sort of wooden cage, called Catasta, where purchasers might examine and handle them. A label (titulus) was attached to the neck of each, describing the age, country, qualities, and defects of the individual, and whether he was new (novitius) or had previously been in servitude (veterator). Slaves newly imported from abroad had their feet whitened (gypsatos s. cretatos pedes).

Price of Slaves.-In the Augustan age, a common domestic slave would fetch from sixteen to twenty pounds sterling, while one of a higher order, such as a skilful workman, was worth three times as much. Individuals endowed with rare accomplishments brought prices, regulated by accident and caprice. Under the early emperors, beautiful youths, Asiatics especially, were in great request as pages (salutigeruli pueri) and cupbearers. Such, if we can believe Martial, were worth between eight and nine hundred pounds, or even double that amount.

Number of Slaves.

-In the days of primitive simplicity, the number of slaves possessed even by the wealthy was exceedingly small, and individuals of distinction had frequently not more than two or three to attend to their wants. By degrees it was reckoned discreditable for any one in easy circumstances to be scantily provided with attendants; the division of labour in the houses of men of moderate means was as great as in India at the present day, while the throngs maintained by the rich (familiarum numerum et nationes) were vastly multiplied. When Horace wrote, ten and two hundred were regarded as the opposite extremes of a small and a large establishment. A large portion of the enormous wealth of Crassus consisted of slaves; but of these many were artizans, whose labour yielded a highly profitable return, his architects and masons alone amounting to 500.

Classification of Slaves.-The whole body of slaves belonging to one master was usually classed under two heads :

1. Familia Rustica, the slaves who lived upon and cultivated the country estates of their masters.

2. Familia Urbana, the slaves employed for domestic purposes. The Familia Rustica was again separated into two divisionsServi Vincti and Servi Soluti. The former consisted of those who were compelled to work in chains (compede vincti) while abroad, and were confined, when at home, in a sort of underground prison, termed Ergastulum. The Servi Soluti, on the other hand, were not placed under any personal restraint. The whole of the Familia

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