CHAPTER XV. AGRICULTURE. THE Romans during the brightest period of their history were passionately devoted to agriculture and the pursuits of a rural life. For many centuries war and the cultivation of the soil were regarded as the only occupations befitting a free-born citizen. Numerous treatises upon farming in general and the various branches of the art were published from time to time, and of these a few have descended to us. The most important is that entitled De Re Rustica Libri III., by the celebrated M. Terentius Varro, the contemporary of Cicero; we have also a longer and more elaborate, but less original production by M. Iunius Columella, who probably flourished under the Emperor Claudius; a compilation in the form of a Farmer's Kalendar by Palladius Rutilius Taurus Emilianus, a writer of uncertain date and doubtful authority; and a collection of shrewd maxims on various topics connected with the management of a farm and domestic economy by M. Porcius Cato, the Censor. These four, together with a manual, De Arte Veterinaria, by a certain Vegetius Renatus, have been frequently published together under the title Scriptores Rei Rusticae Veteres Latini. In addition, two books of the Natural History of Pliny, the XVII. and XVIII., are chiefly occupied by matters connected with this subject, and Virgil has chosen this for the theme of the most perfect and charming didactic poem in existence. Divisions of the Subject.-Res Rustica, to which Agricultura is frequently employed as equivalent, may be discussed under two heads. I. AGRICULTURA, in the proper sense of the word, viz., the tillage of the ground. II. PASTIO, the management of live stock. Again, AGRICULTURA, in this its proper sense, may be subdivided into 1. Agricultura, in a more restricted sense comprehending the art of raising the cereal grasses; leguminous plants; vegetables cultivated for their fibre, such as flax; for their oil, such as poppies; or for fodder, such as lucerne. 2. Cultus Arborum, arboriculture, comprehending the management of trees in general, but principally fruit trees, and especially the vine and the olive. 3. Cultus Hortorum, gardening, comprehending the rearing of flowers, pot herbs (olera), and small fruits. So also, PASTIO may be subdivided into— 1. Pastio Agrestis s. Res Pecuaria, comprehending the larger and more important domestic animals, such as sheep, oxen, horses, &c. 2. Pastio Villatica, comprehending the smaller and less important animals, such as poultry, bees, fish, &c. These are the divisions of the subject which form the groundwork of the Georgics: the first book is devoted to agricultura in the restricted sense. Quid faciat laetas segetes, quo sidere terram Vertere The second to the Cultus Arborum. Nunc te, Bacche, canam, nec non silvestria tecum, The third to Pastio Agrestis. The fourth to that particular department of Pastio Villatica which seemed to afford the greatest scope for poetical ornament, viz., the habits and treatment of bees. apibus quanta experientia parcis. And in the same book there are a few exquisite lines in which (116-148) Virgil excuses himself for not entering at length on the Cultus Hortorum. Following the example of the great poet, we shall make a few remarks on each of the divisions enumerated above, with the exception of gardening, the details belonging to that pursuit being somewhat minute and not frequently alluded to by the classical writers. I. AGRICULTURA. Divisions of Agricultura.-Varro treats of agricultura proper under four great heads. 1. Cognitio Fundi, the natural situation of the farm, the soil, and the climate. 2. Instrumenta, the persons, animals, and tools requisite for the cultivation of the farm. 3. Res quibus arva coluntur, the various operations to be performed, and the crops which form the object of these operations. 4. Tempora, the seasons at which the various operations ought to be performed. 1. Cognitio Fundi. This may be treated of under nine heads. (1.) Forma fundi naturalis. (2.) Terrae natura. (3.) Modus agri. (4.) De finibus tuendis. (5.) Si regio infesta. (6.) Si invectvs et avectus idonei. (7.) Vecturae. (8.) Cultura et natura fundorum confinium. (9.) Villa et stabula. (1.) Forma fundi naturalis, the natural aspect and character of the locality. (2.) Terrae natura, the quality of the soil. These two heads ar indicated by Virgil in the lines (G. i., 50.) At prius ignotum ferro quam scindimus aequor, Cura sit, ac patrios cultus habitusque locorum Et quid quaeque ferat regio, et quid quaeque recuset. While in book ii., 177, he enters more at large into the character Soils were classified according to their productive powers, their consistency, their chief constituents, their colour, and even thei taste. Thus we find land spoken of as-1. Pinguis (rich); 2 Macra-Ieiuna (poor); 3. Putris-Soluta (free); 4. Spissa-Dens (stiff); 5. Humida-Uliginosa (wet, swampy); 6. Sicca (dry); 7 Argillosa (clayey); 8. Lapidosa (stony); 9. Glareosa (gravelly) 10. Arenosa (sandy); 11. Pulla-Nigra (black); 12. Cretos (white); 13. Rubricosa (red); 14. Salsa (salt); 15. Amara (bitter; and many others. (3.) Modus agri, the measurement of land and the consideration which regulated the size of a farm. It is sufficient here to sta that the land measure in common use among the Romans was tl Iugerum, which was less than two-thirds and more than three-fift of an imperial acre. (4.) De finibus tuendis, i. e., fences (sepes, septa, sepimenta). Th fences in ordinary use were-a. Sepimentum naturale, the quicks hedge; b. Sepimentum agreste, the wooden paling; c. Sepimentu militare, consisting of a ditch (fossa) crowned with a bank (agge. formed of the earth thrown out; d. Sepimentum fabrile, a stone o brick wall, with or without cement. (5.) Si regio infesta, the state of the surrounding country in s far as security of property was concerned, an inquiry by no mea unnecessary, for a district might be infested with robbers or expose to the predatory incursions of hostile tribes. (6.) Si invectus et avectus idonei, that is, if there were facilitie for purchasing necessaries and for disposing of the products of the farm-good markets at hand for buying and selling. (7.) Vecturae, the accessibility of the farm; whether there were practicable roads or navigable streams. (8.) Cultura et natura fundorum confinium. A certain influence was exercised upon the value of a farm by the mode of cultivation adopted in and the natural character of the lands adjacent. (9.) Villa et stabula, the last and one of the most important topics belonging to the Cognitio Fundi, was the consideration of the farm buildings, the dwelling-house, and offices. The general term comprehending the whole of the farm buildings was Villa, and the structure might be discussed under three heads-a. Villa Urbana; b. Villa Rustica; c. Villa fruc tuaria. a. Villa Urbana.-This comprehended that portion of the buildings occupied by the proprietor. The extent and the decorations depended entirely on his taste and his means, and might embrace anything between the simple cottage of primitive times and the sumptuous palaces of the wealthy in the age of Augustus. b. Villa Rustica.-This comprehended that portion of the building intended for the accommodation of the Familia, of slave labourers, and of the domestic animals. The apartments essential for the familia were-1. Culina, a spacious kitchen where the food of the establishment was cooked and eaten; 2. Cellae, sleeping closets for the Servi Soluti (see p. 47) and rooms for the Villicus and the Procurator; 3. Ergastulum, a sort of prison, frequently under ground, where the Servi Vincti (see p. 47) were confined when within doors. The buildings for the domestic animals were included under the general term Stabula, which comprehended Bubilia (byres), Ovilia (sheep huts), Equilia (stables), Harae (pig styes), and others. c. Villa fructuaria.-This comprehended that portion of the buildings intended for storing or preparing the different products of the farm. Such were the Cella Vinaria (wine cellar), Celia Olearia (oil cellar), Cella Torcularia (press room), Granaria (granaries), Foenilia (hay lofts), Palearia (chaff houses), besides a number of apartments for objects which required to be kept dry, included under the general terms horrea and apothecae. If the farm was of considerable extent the buildings were usually arranged round two courts (cortes), and in the centre of each of these was a large tank (piscina). Either within the enclosures of the farm buildings, or immediately adjoining, were erected a mill (pistrinum), and a bake-house (furnum); the thrashing floor (area), to be more particularly described below, was formed, if possible, within sight of the windows, and alongside of it was a huge covered shed called nubilarium, capable of containing the whole grain crop. 2. Instrumenta. The instrumenta of a farm were divided into three classes—(1.) Genus Vocale. (2.) Genus Semivocale. (3.) Genus Mutum. (1.) Genus Vocale, i. e., the human beings employed. These might be-a. Liberi Coloni; b. Mercenarii; c. Servi. a. Liberi Coloni, small proprietors who cultivated their own lands with their own hands, and with the aid of their families. b. Mercenarii, free hired labourers. These were but little employed except in the great operations of haymaking (foenisicium), the corn harvest (messis), and the vintage (vindemia), when a number of extra hands were required for a limited period. The regular work of a large farm was performed almost exclusively by c. Servi, slaves, forming the Familia Rustica. The Familia Rustica was, as we have seen above (p. 47), separated into two divisions-1. Servi Soluti, who were not subjected to any personal restraint, and 2. Servi Vincti, who worked in fetters (compede vincti) when abroad, and who, when within doors, were shut up in a sort of prison called Ergastulum. The slaves on a farm were also divided into gangs, according to the particular duties which they were required to perform, and in large establishments the subdivision of labour was pushed very far. Thus there were Bubulci (ox drivers), Asinarii (ass drivers), Armentarii (neat herds), Opiliones (shepherds), Caprarii (goat herds), Bubulci (swine herds), Vinitores (vine dressers), Operarii (ordinary labourers), and very many others. man. When the gangs were large and worked together, each had a Praefectus or overseer, and in each farm there was a bailiff or superintendent called Villicus, who was himself a slave or a freedTo him was committed the whole charge and general management, and with him a housekeeper called Villica was frequently associated. Besides these, when the transactions were numerous and complicated, there was a Procurator, or book-keeper, who kept the accounts and took charge of the cash. (2.) Genus Semivocale, i. e., the inferior animals trained to labour. All the ordinary work of a farm, such as ploughing, harrowing, carting, and the like, for which we employ horses, was, in ancient times, performed by oxen trained for the purpose (boves domiti), and this practice prevails generally in Southern Europe at the present day. Asses were used for turning corn mills, and when |