When Domitian introduced the practice of starting six chariots in each Missus, two new Factiones were added-the gold and the purple-Factio Aurata, Factio Purpurea.

Athletae.-Gymnastic contests also formed a part of the Ludi Circenses; and as the Greeks had their vτov, so the Romans combined the five chief exercises into a Quinquertium, consisting of foot races (Cursus), leaping (Saltus), wrestling (Lucta), throwing the quoit (Disci iactus), and hurling the javelin (Taculatio). Sometimes boxing was substituted (Pugilatus). These and other manly sports, such as riding (Equitatio), and swimming (Natatio), were practised by youth in the Campus Martius, from the earliest times, and under the Empire large courts, called Gymnasia or Palaestrae, were generally attached for this purpose to the great Thermae, or public bathing establishments.

Ludus Troiae.—A sort of mock fight performed by Patrician youths on horseback, instituted at a very remote period, revived by Julius Cæsar, and cultivated under succeeding Emperors.

Pugna.—Sham battles were also exhibited, in which infantry, cavalry, and elephants contended, the camps of the opposing hosts being pitched in the Arena of the Circus.

Naumachia.-Sea fights (Navalia Proelia) were occasionally represented in the Circus, the arena being filled with water. Claudius organized a magnificent Naumachia on the Lacus Fucinus; Nero usually employed an amphitheatre. Naumachia signifies not only the sea fight, but also the lake or tank in which it took place.

Venatio.-As the Roman arms extended to a greater and greater distance from Rome, the productions of foreign countries, especially strange animals, were from time to time shown off in public. The three elephants taken from Pyrrhus formed a most attractive spectacle in the triumph of Curius Dentatus; and one hundred and fortytwo were displayed by Lucius Metellus, in B.C. 251, in the Circus. Wild beasts were subsequently matched against each other, or against armed men. Such contests were termed Venationes. Towards the close of the Republic, no Ludi Circenses would have been considered complete without its wild beast hunt. In the second consulship of Pompeius, B.C. 55, 500 lions, 410 panthers and leopards, and 18 elephants, were killed in five days; Julius Cæsar turned 400 lions loose all at once; and on the return of Trajan from Dacia, 11,000 wild animals were butchered.

Venatio Direptionis.—The elder Gordian planted the area of the Circus with trees, so as to resemble a forest, and turned loose a multitude of wild game. The populace then entered the enclosure, and carried away whatever they could kill. Amusements of this description were styled Venationes Direptionis.

Rewards of Victory. Palma.-These were branches of the palm

tree, and also wreaths made of gold and silver, sums of money, horses, silken tunics, and linen vestments embroidered with gold. Pompa Circi.- The Ludi Circenses commenced with a solemn procession which defiled from the Capitol, and passing through the Forum, entered the Circus Maximus. The principal magistrates headed this Pompa Circi, and were followed by youths organized in bands as cavalry and infantry; by the performers in the sports; by numerous bodies of dancers and musicians; and lastly the images of all the most important deities followed, carried on Fercula, or in sacred vehicles (Thensae), preceded by incense boxes of gold and silver. After sacrifice the shows commenced.

2. Ludi Scenici.

Origin and Progress of the Roman Drama.-Dramatic exhibitions were unknown at Rome for nearly four centuries after the foundation of the city. But in B.C. 361, scenic sports-Ludi Sceniciwere introduced from Etruria; the performers were termed Ludiones or Histriones. These entertainments were simple, consisting of dances, accompanied by the flute. About B.C. 240, Livius Andronicus, a Greek freedman, introduced comedies and tragedies, translated from his native language; Naevius, Ennius, Plautus, Pacuvius, Accius, and Terentius followed. Their pieces were for the most part close imitations of Greek originals. In addition to regular plays (Fabulae), farces or interludes, called Mimi, found great favour with the public, and also Atellanae (sc. fabulae), so called from Atella in Campania-entertainments indigenous in Southern Italy.

In the Pantomimi there was neither dialogue nor soliloquy, but a single performer represented in dumb show all the events of a complicated tale.

The construction of a regular theatre (first commenced in B.C. 155) was stopped at the instance of Scipio Nasica by the Senate. A few years afterwards, however, Lucius Mummius vanquished the prejudices of his countrymen. The first permanent theatre was the work of Pompeius Magnus (B.c. 61). It was built of hewn stone, and calculated to hold 40,000 persons. A second, the work of Cornelius Balbus, was opened a few years after the battle of Actium; and a third, the most splendid of all, still a noble ruin, bore the name of Marcellus. These were the three theatres of Rome.

A theatre, ancient or modern, may be conveniently separated into two divisions-1. The part devoted to the spectators. 2. The part devoted to the actors. The former was comprehended under the general name of Cavea, the latter under that of Scena.

The Cavea was semicircular, and consisted of steps-Gradus-of stone or marble, rising one above the other; the rows of seats were divided at intervals by broad passages (Praecinctiones), running

round the semicircle; these again into smaller spaces by staircases -Scalae-converging towards the centre, cutting across the Gradus, and dividing the seats into wedge-shaped compartments (Cunei). The various Praecinctiones and Scalae communicated with apertures (Vomitoria) which led to the porticos, which, rising story above story, ran round the whole building.

The Scena consisted of the Scena in a restricted sense, answering to the modern Scene, and the Pulpitum or stage. The scene itself was very rarely changed during the course of the same play. The Pulpitum was divided into the Proscenium or space in front of the scene, where the performers acted, and the Postscenium, or space behind the scene, to which they retired.

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Orchestra.-The semicircular area included by the straight line which bounded the stage in front and the first row of the ascending steps, was the Orchestra, so called from ipxx (to dance). In the Greek theatre this space was always occupied by the Chorus, who here performed their sacred dances and chanted their songs. the other hand, in Roman comedy, there was no Chorus; and in Roman tragedies the Chorus and the musicians were upon the stage itself, the Orchestra being left vacant for the spectators. (See the two following cuts.)

Reserved Seats.-All ranks sat promiscuously until B.C. 193, when separate places were assigned to the Senators; and subsequently

made over to the Equites; the distinction thus introduced was maintained; and to say that a person sat upon the fourteen benches (in quatuordecim ordinibus sedere) was equivalent to an assertion of his equestrian rank.

Aulaeum, Siparium.-The stage was concealed by a curtain called Aulaeum or Siparium, which was not pulled up, as in modern theatres, when the performances commenced, but was drawn down under the stage, so that when Horace wishes to express that certain spectacles were prolonged for four hours, he says

"Quatuor aut plures AULAEA PREMUNTUR in horas."

i. e., the curtain is kept down, or the exhibition continues four hours. Dress of Actors.-The actors (Histriones-Ludiones) in tragedy wore a boot Cothurnus (xótopvos), which reached half-way up the leg, or almost to the knees, with a very thick sole to increase the stature. Comedians wore a thin slipper called Soccus; hence Cothurnus and Soccus figuratively denote tragedy and comedy. Thus Horace, speaking of Iambic measure-Hunc Socci cepere pedem grandesque Cothurni: and again - Grande munus Cecropio repetes Cothurno. (C. ii., i. 11). The actors in mimes (Mimi), appeared with bare feet; hence they were styled Planipedes, and the farces Planipediae. The actors generally concealed their features with masks (Personae). Amphitheatres.-Amphitheatrum, or appliaтpov, is a double theatre, or a theatre all round. If we suppose the whole of the Cavea,

including the Orchestra, of one theatre to be applied to the Cavea of another theatre of the same dimensions, we shall form an accurate idea of a Roman amphitheatre, with this difference, that instead of being circular, it was of an oval shape. The space in the centre was called the Arena, being strewed with sand; here the various exhibitions were represented. It was sunk several feet under the level of the lowest row of seats; and for still greater security from the wild beasts, a sort of balustrade (Podium), covered with network, was raised on the summit of the bounding walls. Several doors led from the Arena to the apartments of the combatants. Amphitheatres were originally temporary buildings of wood. The Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian, and completed by his son, was a memorial of the triumphant conclusion of the Jewish war. It was upwards of 180 feet in height, one-third of a mile in circumference, and capable of containing 100,000 persons. We annex a cut taken from a large brass of Titus.

Below is a view of the amphitheatre excavated at Pompeii.

Vela. The ancient theatres and amphitheatres were open to the sky, and hence generally surrounded by porticos, under which the spectators might find shelter in the event of a sudden shower: in order to screen the audience from the sun, it was customary to spread an awning (Vela) over the whole of the interior.

The Vela being unmanageable during a high wind, the people in such a case shaded themselves with a sort of broad brimmed hat called a Causia, or held up parasols (Umbracula).

Sparsiones. Missilia, &c.-No cost was spared, during the last century of the Republic, and under the Empire, to increase the

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