DRAMATIS PERSONE

SOLINUS, duke of Ephesus.

ÆGEON, a merchant of Syracuse.

ANTIPHOLUS of Ephesus, twin brothers, and sons to Ægeon and ANTIPHOLUS of Syracuse,

Emilia.

DROMIO of Ephesus,twin brothers, and attendants on the two DROMIO of Syracuse, Antipholuses.

BALTHAZAR, a merchant.

ANGELO, a goldsmith.

First Merchant, friend to Antipholus of Syracuse.

Second Merchant, to whom Angelo is a debtor.

PINCH, a schoolmaster.

ÆMILIA, wife to Ægeon, an abbess at Ephesus.

ADRIANA, wife to Antipholus of Ephesus.

LUCIANA, her sister.

LUCE, servant to Adriana.

A Courtezan,

Gaoler, Officers, and other Attendants.

SCENE: Ephesus.

DURATION OF ACTION

A single day, ending about 5 P.M.

INTRODUCTION

THE COMEDY OF ERRORS first appeared in the Folio of 1623, where it occupies the fifth place. Like Love's Labour's Lost it was mentioned among Shakespeare's comedies by Francis Meres in the Palladis Tamia, 1598. But it was undoubtedly composed several years before this, and there is no reason to suppose that, like Love's Labour's Lost, it underwent any revision. All its features of style, metre, characterisation, and structure point to the years 1589-91 as its date; and two explicit allusions confirm this view. Theobald first pointed out the reference in iii. 2. to the contemporary civil war in France. Dromio, describing the corpulent kitchen-maid to Antipholus, replies to the question in what part of her person he had found 'France,' in the words: In her forehead; armed and reverted, against her hair.' This is also applicable to the situation between 1589, when Henry III. appointed Henry IV. his successor, and 1593, when the civil war closed with Henry's actual recognition as King. The English expedition sent to his aid in 1591 marked the warm popular sympathy with his cause of which Shakespeare had already made use in Love's Labour's Lost; and the unflattering-in its more occult sense even ribald—allusion to France

doubtless brought down the house. It is probable that a Comedy of Errors performed in 1594 'by the players' at Gray's Inn was Shakespeare's play. A Historie of Error (now lost) is recorded to have

existed at a much earlier date-1st January 1577; but the wits and scholars who dictated intellectual fashions at the Inns of Court were not likely, at this moment of unparalleled dramatic advance, to revive an old play of the last decade but one.

To an audience of this type, Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors would peculiarly appeal by its obvious relation to two well-known plays of Plautus. Of one of these, the Menæchmi, an English version was published in 1595 by 'W. W.,' i.e. probably William Warner. The other plays translated by Warner remained in MS. But Shakespeare certainly imitated also-in a highly original way-a scene from the Amphitruo; and it is no violent hypothesis that the sometime scholar of Stratford grammar-school could and did read both in Latin. Plautus' Menæchmi is an amusing piece, of moderate merit. The Menæchmi are two brothers, one of whom (originally Sosicles) after the loss of the other is called by his name, and on growing up goes in search of him. They are distinguished in the English translation as Menæchmus 'the traveller' (T.) and 'the citizen' (C.). The former has a servant Messenio. The scene is laid at Epidamnus (called in the English version Epidamnum, in the Folio Shakespeare Epidamium). Menæchmus C. arranges to dine with Erotium, a courtesan. Menæchmus T., who has just landed, is summoned to the dinner, and after eating it, is entrusted with a cloak which Menæchmus C. has purloined from his wife for Erotium, and a chain, her own property, to take to the dyer and the goldsmith. Menæchmus C.'s wife ('Mulier') abuses him for the loss of her cloak and sends him to claim it from Erotium. In the meantime she meets Menæchmus T. with the cloak on his shoulders. Recriminations ensue. She calls in her father ('Senex'), who mildly expostulates; Menæchmus

swears his innocence, is charged with madness, feigns madness to scare them, and on their running off to fetch a physician, flies to his ship. Returning they meet Menæchmus C., who is only saved from forcible capture by the arrival of Menæchmus T.'s servant Messenio. In reward he promises Messenio his freedom. Menæchmus T. being 'reminded' of this promise angrily scouts it, but the dispute is interrupted by the appearance of Menæchmus C. and the 'errors' are cleared up.

In Shakespeare's hands this farcical plot lost nothing of its farcical character. He even heightened the extravagance of the primary supposition by doubling the pair of indistinguishable twins; but he worked out the comical consequences of the situation with far greater care than Plautus, touched its romantic possibilities with a lyrical ardour to which Plautus was wholly strange, and set it in a framework of tragedy of which the Plautine story contains no suggestion.

The central incident-the entertainment of the wrong Menæchmus at dinner-was immensely improved with the aid of the motive already referred to from Plautus' Amphitruo. Jupiter and Mercury there visit Alcmena's house in the disguise of her husband Amphitruo and his servant Sosia. After their departure the true Amphitruo and Sosia arrive. It may well be that this suggested the introduction of the Dromio twins, though Shakespeare gives still more piquancy to the idea by making Antipholus and Dromio of Ephesus arrive at the door while their counterparts of Syracuse are still within. This probably further suggested the substitution of the wife for the courtesan, as the hostess of Antipholus of Syracuse, Antipholus of Ephesus' visit to the courtesan being made, with admirable tact, a not unnatural act of vengeance for his apparent exclusion from his own house, instead of

a gratuitous infidelity, as it is in Plautus. The wife herself and her sister are studied with a care and minuteness which the action certainly did not require. In the change from Plautus' Mulier,' who rails at her husband with only too good reason, to Shakespeare's Adriana, who torments him with doubts at bed and board, and is ready to die in despair at the loss of his love because he refuses to come home to dinner, we see the change from pragmatical to psychological drama, from the comedy of intrigue to the comedy of character, of which otherwise there is not in this play very much. And Luciana brings us altogether into the atmosphere of lyric love which pervades The Two Gentlemen and the greater part of A Midsummer-Night's Dream, and is half seriously disparaged in Love's Labour's Lost.

Still more significant is, finally, the story of Ægeon, which envelops the whole comic plot. It is probably Shakespeare's invention, and betrays the same instinct for accumulated effects and drastic contrasts. He had quadrupled the intricacies of the imbroglio by doubling the two lost Antipholuses with a second pair of twins; he quadruples the excitement of the final recovery by doubling them with a pair of lost parents, who at the same time recover their children and each other. And the foreboding of tragic harms which habitually overhangs for a while the early comedies, is here graver and more protracted than either in A Midsummer-Night's Dream or The Two Gentlemen. Valentine's banishment and Hermia's destination to a nunnery or death arouse no serious suspense; but Ægeon is a pathetic and moving figure, whose story a masterpiece of Shakespeare's early narrative-strikes a note at the outset with which the subsequent action is in somewhat too marked dis sonance for ripe art.