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belong here not only in origin, but also in actual use. So regularly ON midgardr, OSax. middilgard, and frequently OE middangeard, OHG mittilgart.

b. The solid surface of the earth, viewed as a surface or foundation. One lies 'on the earth' or more commonly 'on the ground'. Thus this sense may also be expressed by words meaning 'bottom, foundation', as Grk. dapos, Lat. solum, NE ground, Dan., Sw. grond, NHG grund, boden, Du. bodem, Boh. puda, etc.

c. The solid surface of the earth in contrast with that which is covered with water, now regularly land. This sense is in some languages commonly expressed more specifically as 'dry (land)', as NG. ¿epá (¿npá), Rum. uscat (from adj. uscat 'dry'), Lith. sausžemis (sausas 'dry' and žeme).

d. The softer part of the earth's surface, as the source of vegetation, (good) land, soil, or ground. This sense may also be expressed more specifically by derivatives, as It. terreno, terricio ('loam'), Fr. terroir, Sp. terreno; or with extension from sense b, as NE ground, soil, NHG boden, etc. It is the primary sense of OE molde 'soil' (NE mould still used in England for 'loam'), Dan. muld, Sw. mull 'loam' (Goth. mulda 'dust'), derived from *mel- 'crush, grind'; so Skt. mrd- 'soil, clay' (and mrttika-) from mrd- 'crush', an extension of the same root. NE loam, now used for a special kind of soil, is from OE lām 'clay, mud', cognate with NHG lehm (from LG), Dan. ler, etc., all meaning properly 'clay'.

e. The same as material in general. This may be expressed by the common words for 'earth' (cf. NE earthenware), more often by special words for a particular kind of earth, like NE clay, NHG ton, Fr. argile, etc.

f. A definite portion of the earth's surface, from the land of an individual to a whole country ('the land of Egypt').

The association between these various senses is such that any one of them may be the starting point of an extension to some or all of the others.

Thus Lat. terra according to its etymology started with sense c, but was used in all the above senses.

This was replaced in Rumanian, in most of its uses, by pamînt, starting from sense b. A similar but less far reaching extension from sense b is seen in Lat. solum 'bottom, ground', often used in sense f, and in the quotable uses of NE ground (senses b, d, f, c, a; see NED). Sense b is also the probable or certain starting point for several of the

common words for earth (see below, under 1, 3, 4, 6). NE mould, OE molde, with sense d or e, is also quotable in senses a and ƒ (NED).

Of the two Germanic words represented by NE earth and land, the latter started with sense f, as indicated by the etymology and the use in Gothic, but was at an early period extended to sense c, eventually displacing earth, etc. which were once freely used in this sense. In English, on the other hand, land in a part of its earlier uses is mostly displaced by country.

The words listed in the table and discussed below are the common words of broad scope which cover substantially the same ground as NE earth and land. Words that may be substituted or are even more common in some of the senses, as NE ground, soil, country, Grk. xwpa, NG xua are not included in the table, and are discussed only incidentally.

1. The most wide-spread etymological group, pointing to an IE word (*ĝhem- with some complicated phonetic variants) for 'earth', probably in sense b, is that which furnishes the common word for 'earth, land' in all senses in the Balto-Slavic languages and Iranian, e.g. Lith žeme, ChSl. zemlja, Av. zam- (so NP zamin, but OP bumi-). Here also probably Alb. dhe 'earth, land'. The cognates in other languages are among the less common words and are used prevailingly in sense b. So Vedic kşam (also gen. sg. gmas, jmas) with sense b, especially in contrast to div- 'sky'. Grk. xvwv poetical and mainly in sense b, but also in sense a and f. Cf. xauai 'on the ground', xvapadós, xaunλós 'lying on the ground, low'. Lat. humus regularly in sense b, sometimes in sense d, poetically also in sense f. Cf. Lat. humilis 'low', Umbr. hondra 'below', etc.

There is no clear further derivation from any known verbal root, but the facts of usage indicate as the earliest attainable meaning that of the low-lying surface of the earth in contrast to the sky above. Cf. also the derivatives homō, Goth. guma 'man', from the notion of 'earthly' in contrast to the 'heavenly' gods.

Lat. terra from *tersă: torreō 'dry up, parch' Grk. répoоual 'dry up', Goth. ga-pairsan 'to dry up, wither', Skt. trs.- 'to thirst', NE thirst, etc. Its original meaning then was 'land' in sense c. Here belongs also, though of somewhat different formation (*teros?), Ir. tīr mainly ‘land' in sense f, Welsh tir 'land' in senses ƒ and c, and the now obsolete Breton tir.

The descendants of Lat. terra remain the usual words in all the Romance languages except Rumanian, where ţara is now 'country' (part

of sense f, also 'country' vs. 'city'), otherwise displaced by pamînt. See following.

3. Rum. pamînt is from Lat. pavimentum 'floor, pavement'. Used first of the 'ground' (sense b), it became the common word for 'earth, land' in nearly all senses, namely a, b (but for c usually uscat, from adj. uscat 'dry'), d, e, and ƒ in part (the 'land' of an individual, but țara for 'country').

4. OIr. talam, NIr. talamh, Lat. tellus (mostly poetical), are cognate with Skt. tala- 'surface, bottom, plain', ChSl. tilo, SCr. tlo 'bottom, ground'. Here also the starting point was sense b.

5. Welsh daiar, Bret. douar are of uncertain etymology. The forms are derivable from *diyaro- or *disaro-. Pedersen 1. 66 compares Arm. ti- in certain compounds as ti-kin 'queen' (kin 'woman'). Henry, Lex. Bret., suggests derivation from the root *dāi- 'divide' (Grk. daioμaι, etc.). In this case the development would be from 'portion' to 'piece of land', then extension from sense f to the others, as in the history of NE land.

6. The common Germanic word, Goth. airpa, Dan. jord, NE earth, NHG erde, etc. is cognate with an Irish ert 'land' occurring only in compounds (Stokes, Bezz. B. 25. 255), and with OHG ero 'earth', Grk. epa attested by epas yns Hesych. and epace 'to the ground'. Other possible cognates including Arm. erkir ‘earth', in Walde-Pokorny 1. 142. Any further root connection is uncertain, so that the semantic'starting point remains obscure, though probably sense b.

7. The other important Germanic word, NE land etc., is cognate with a Celtic land in OIr. ith-land, NIr. ioth-lann 'threshing floor', M Welsh llan 'an enclosure, yard'. Its earliest use was in sense ƒ, and in Gothic it is only so used, namely for 'piece of land' or 'country', airþa being used in all the other senses including 'land' in contrast to sea.

8. Grk. y, Hom. yaîa, is of unknown etymology, and perhaps of pre-Greek origin. The poetical ala is also of doubtful etymology, but possibly the mother (earth)'. Cf. Brugmann, IF 15. 93 ff. NG xŵua, from ancient Grk. xua 'heap of earth, mound', (cf. xoûs 'dust' in N. T.) is now 'earth' in senses b and d, and may also be used like NE soil in sense f (σὲ κεῖνα ἅγια τὰ χώματα).

9. Skt. bhūmi-, OPers. būmi-, Av. būmi- (less common than zam-), are from bhu- 'become, exist', hence first used of the earth as the known world. Cf. Skt. bhu- 'world' and 'earth', bhuvana- 'world', etc. (above, under world).

Other common Sanskrit words for 'earth' are prthivi fem. of prthu'wide', mahi fem. of mah- 'great', kşiti- properly 'abode', vasu-dhāliterally 'yielding good', etc.

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IE *sāwel-, *suel-, *sul-, *suen-, *sun-, from a root *sāu- (presumably 'shine') with gradation and parallel - and n-suffixes (the Slavic forms from *sulno- with added dimin. suffix). Cf. Walde-Pokorny 2. 446. Here belong all the words listed except the following.

Ir. grian, NIr. grian, from *greinā, formed from the weak grade of IE *gher- seen in words for 'hot, heat', as NIr. gor, NE warm, Grk. depuós, Skt. gharma-, etc. Cf. especially Skt. ghṛṇa- 'heat' and 'sunshine'.

Skt. ravi-, perhaps the commonest classical word for 'sun', Arm. arev 'sun', belong with Skt. aruna-, aruşa- 'reddish' (both often applied to the sun), Av. auruša 'white'. The further connection of these with Skt. rudhira- 'red', Lat. ruber, NE red, etc. is probable, though disputed. Cf. Walde-Pokorny 2. 359.

Among other Sanskrit words for 'sun' are: bhānu- from bhā- 'shine', bhās-kara-, lit. 'light-making', dina-kāra- lit. 'day-making', arka- from arc- 'shine'.

SOME HITTITE WORDS

E. H. STURTEVANT

YALE UNIVERSITY

[Improvements in the interpretation of a Hittite document published by the author in TAPA 58. 5-31.]

In Transactions of the American Philological Association 58. 5-31 I published a Hittite ritual tablet with translation and commentary. Partly on account of suggestive letters received from A. Götze and E. Tenner, I am now able to make further progress with the interpretation and etymology of several words in that document.

waggašnuanzi (1. 9) 'they omit' is the causative of waggari 'is lacking', as I have shown (p. 19). There is also an active form, waki, which means 'removes' or the like. If it be objected that this leaves the š of waggašnuanzi unexplained, I would cite the causatives hatkešnu'cause to be devastated' hatk- 'overrun, devastate' (cf. Sommer, Boghazköi-Studien 7. 22); huišnu- 'cause to live': huitar 'the animals' (cf. Sturtevant, LANGUAGE 3. 112 f.); pahšnu- 'cause to protect', pahš'protect' Sanskrit pā- 'protect'; tekkuš(ša)nu-, tekkuš(š)a- 'prove' : Latin dico, Greek deíkvvμ, etc. Suffixes containing s are no less common in the Hittite verb than in the Indo-European, although they cannot be classified as aorist or present suffixes. Probably the familiar values of verbal stems in s were developed by Indo-European after the separation from Hittite. Indo-European also shows a formative s before the suffix neu in Skt. dhrsnoti 'he dares': dhar- 'hold, endure'.

With the active waki 'he removes' I would compare Lithuanian vagiu 'steal', and with the middle waggari 'is lacking' corresponds Lat. vagor 'wander', although both these verbs differ from the Hittite in present formation.

uppeššaran (1. 25) 'one sent, an addition to the company': this a-stem derivative of the neuter uppeššar ‘a giving, a gift' appears again in 3. 34; ma-an DUMU.SAL.ŠU up-pi-iš-šá-ri pa-a-i 'and he gives it to his daughter, who has been added to the company' (correct my former translation accordingly). Such a shift to the personal gender and the adeclension from a neuter r/n-stem is not common in Hittite, where the,

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