struggles the Austrians were beaten. About 40,000 dead and wounded covered the battle-field. Dunant, "the man in white," as the soldiers called him because of his light tourist's costume, realized the inadequacy of the available personnel and quickly gathered a corps of voluntary helpers from among the peasant population of Castiglioni, the center of the French position. He persuaded them to help the Austrians also and not only their allies, as they had at first planned to do. "Tutti Fratelli," he said (all are brothers). After several sleepless nights and days of strenuous toil, he hastened to Brescia, to make himself useful in the military hospitals, procuring refreshments and surgical dressings from his own means.

The experiences of these frightful days of suffering strengthened Dunant's purpose to bring about an extensive, thorough-going improvement in the care of war sufferers. So he published a record of his observations in a book entitled Un Souvenir de Solferino (1862). This soon became widely known and was translated into several other languages. It contains true and graphic pictures of the scenes of horror on the battle-field, how the wounded are found and transported to emergency hospitals, how the most necessary operations are performed, and the wounds are dressed. All this is described not for sensational reasons, nor merely to tear off the mask from war's bloody face and make propaganda against it, but for more important reasons. We will quote from the book to show Dunant's definite and practical purpose:

"But why portray so many pictures of heart-rending woe and awaken painful feelings? In reply, let us ask another question: Why not organize voluntary relief societies whose aim should be to nurse sick and wounded warriors and relieve war-sufferers? If war can not as yet be abolished and men continue to invent new methods of destroying each other, with a persistence worthy of a better cause, why not utilize times of comparative peace to solve a question of such vital importance for humanity and Christianity?

"The activity of such societies would naturally be greatly restricted during peace, but in the event of hostilities breaking out, the organization would be complete and the helpers ready for action. They should collaborate with the military authorities, eventually working under their direction. Not only should they nurse and relieve the sick and wounded on the battle-fields, but continue their care in the military hospitals until complete convalescence. Sporadic cases of such benevolence have proved more or less ineffectual because they lacked the needed support and cooperation of others. Joint efforts, well directed, could accomplish wonders. How much

could have been done, had such volunteers been present at Castiglione, Brescia or Mantua on June 24-26! The military personnel of the field hospitals never suffices; recourse has to be taken to the untrained peasantry and the inhabitants of the neighboring

towns.

"The next time military leaders of various nations meet in counsel, would it not be a fitting opportunity to set up an international, sacred principle, uniformly accepted and ratified? With this principle as a foundation, societies could be organized to relieve the wounded of the different nationalities. It is vitally important to make agreements before the outbreak of hostilities, for after that the contending parties would be too greatly at variance to come to any terms.

"Humanity and Christianity peremptorily demand these improvements. It is of the most stupendous importance to take up this work at once and actually organize such societies."

Dunant's thoughts as expressed in this booklet were new, great and epoch-making. No one had ever thought of training the civil population to help assuage the horrors of war, and the idea of general international aggreements about medico-military matters was equally unheard of. Dunant's appeal struck home. In the words of the Genevese linguist Adolf Pictet: "Never has a work of genius taken hold of the public mind more than the book of our fellow citizen, Henri Dunant. It was an electric shock for philanthropy." Not only did Dunant express his thoughts clearly, that alone would have been meritorious, but he placed the entire weight of his forceful personality and influence in the scale during the next few years, to crystallize his ideals into concrete action. The Red Cross and the Geneva Convention were to grow out of the seedthought planted by Dunant.

Our hero fortunately found a society willing to attempt carrying out his plans; for once a prophet had honor in his own country. The Genevese Benevolent Society, with Gustave Moynier as president, enthusiastically took up his ideas and resolved to carry them out. A committee was chosen to develop the project, with Dunant as chairman. An International Benevolence Convention had been announced to meet in Berlin in September, 1863, and the committee considered this an appropriate occasion to make the scheme more widely known. For some reason the convention did not take place, but Dunant went to Berlin nevertheless, and attended the Fifth International Statistical Conference, which met there in September. Here a group of physicians compared the health and mortality

statistics among the civil and military populace. Dunant was given a chance to address the gathering and told of his wish to have the medico-military personnel of all nations treated as neutrals during war. He was listened to with interest, and the delegates expressed their hope that the coming conference at Geneva would serve its purpose in helping to lessen war's fearful sacrifices in life and health.

King William of Prussia and his queen sent their congratulations to Dunant; the crown-prince Frederick William, later Frederick III, had a long talk with him. Prince Carl of Prussia, grandmaster of the knights of St. John, promised the help of his order. The Prussian Minister of War, General von Roon, became an enthusiastic advocate of Dunant's plans.

Next Dunant sent a circular letter, stating his plans, to all the ministers of war in Europe, requesting them to send official delegates to an international conference in Geneva. For a man in private life this was an unprecedented act. But nothing short of the participation of the various governments was necessary before an international adjustment of the all-important question could be thought of. Dunant had the courage of his convictions and was brave enough to stop at nothing which might help his beloved plan to succeed. A question of the weightiest importance was at stake; this simply could not continue to remain a matter of private and isolated voluntary effort on a small scale. He had visited several royal courts to arouse enthusiasm for the coming convention. The grace and ease of his manner, his aristocratic bearing, added weight to his influence with people in high standing. In Dresden he had a conversation with the King of Saxony and was graciously received. In this city he wrote to Napoleon III, another patron, telling of the cordial reception. Next he went to Vienna where Archduke Rainer received him in the absence of the emperor. Speaking of this event, Dunant writes: "After telling of my plan to call the helpless victims of war and their helpers neutral, and to have a 'humanity flag.' to be reverenced everywhere, his Imperial Highness thrice emphatically uttered his approval in French: 'What a grand idea!' The archduke promised that Austria would be represented by a delegate."

In these various ways Dunant had prepared the way for the conference, with his characteristic tenacious persistence, and from October 26-29, 1863, this important event took place. Fourteen governments had sent official delegates. Several others had officially declared their willingness to approve of whatever international agreements would be proposed at this convention. Thirty-six people were present in all, the Knights of St. John being also represented.

At this meeting a number of provisional articles were drawn up. the most important being:

1. Each country is to appoint a committee whose duty it is to assist the medico-military personnel with all available means during war.

2. During peace the central and local committees are to train a voluntary nursing staff, preparing the helpers especially for the exigencies arising during war; they should prepare supplies of surgical dressings and the like.

3. At the outbreak of any hostilities these national relief societies are to offer their help to the military authorities and collaborate with them in equipping hospitals and organizing groups of nurses, orderlies, doctors, etc.

4. In cooperation with the military authorities these committees

are to send to the battle-fields voluntary workers, who, no matter what their nationality, are to wear a white arm-band with a red cross.

5. All ambulances, military hospitals and medico-military personnel are to be considered neutral and are all to have a uniform sign, the Red Cross. A flag with this sign is to be used by all different countries.

It seemed best to choose a red cross on a white back-ground, this being the reverse of the Swiss coat-of-arms, a white cross on a red back-ground. And so the Red Cross reminds one of its historic origin, Switzerland.

Before the conference adjourned, the following declaration was made: "Monsieur Dunant, whose persistent efforts brought about this international conference in the interest of humanity, and the Genevese Benevolent Society, who supported him so loyally, deserve the greatest merit and immortal honor. The world owes them a lasting debt of gratitude."

The committee which had paved the way for this conference developed into the permanent "Genevese International Committee," with the Swiss General Dufour as president and Dunant as secretary. Now another great problem awaited its solution by this benevolent body: not only how to direct and centralize the efforts of the various national committees, but to crown the work by an International Agreement, acceptable to all civilized nations. The Genevese Conference had not been authorized to do this. Its official delegates had simply exchanged views on the subject under discussion and had aimed at a temporary understanding of the general principles

to be acted upon. So in November 1863 the Committee asked all the European countries whether they would accept the terms of an international agreement as drawn up at the Conference in October of that same year. In June of the following summer, after the adequate negotiations, the Swiss parliament invited twentyfive countries to send their delegates to the International Peace Congress to be held at Geneva in August 1864. Sixteen states sent official representatives. Twelve states officially expressed their agreement with the terms of the contract, namely: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France, Hesse-Darmstadt, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Wurtemberg and the Swiss Confederacy. The official document was drawn up in Geneva on August 22, fifty years before the outbreak of the present world war. It consisted of ten articles, which tallied in general with those agreed upon during the previous year. It is interesting, however, to compare them, showing the way in which the original ideas had developed; the most important ones are the following:

1. The military hospitals and ambulances are to be respected and protected by the fighting armies as neutral, so long as sick or wounded are found therein.

2. The personnel of such hospitals and ambulances, as well as army chaplains also share this protection, while attending to their duties.

6. The sick or wounded soldiers of all nations are all to be impartially protected and nursed.

7. A characteristic and uniform flag is to be accepted for these hospitals and ambulances; the neutralized personnel is allowed the use of an arm band, but this issue is left for the military authorities to decide. Both the flag and arm-band are to have a red cross on a white back-ground.

France was the first to endorse the terms of the agreement. Within four months twenty-two states had followed suit. To-day all civilized countries have national Red Cross Committees. At later congresses (Geneva 1868, Brussels 1874, Geneva 1907), other articles were added; experience had shown the imperfections of the original contract, but it certainly laid the foundation of all subsequent efforts along the lines referred to.

The Austro-Prussian war of 1866 offered the first bloody opportunity practically to apply the Red Cross principles, although Austria had not yet endorsed them at the beginning of the war. (This did not take place until after the battle of Königgrätz).