13 not cooled more than it was before, but rather grows warmer : that as much heat is discharged and passes from a latent to a sensible state, as, had it been applied to water in its fluid state, would have heated it to 135°. In this process, the expansion is occasioned by a great number of minute bubbles suddenly produced. Formerly these were supposed to be cold in the abstract; and to be so subtile, that, insinuating themselves into the substance of the fluid, they augmented its bulk, at the same time that, by impeding the motion of its particles upon each other, they changed it from a fluid to a solid. But Dr. Black shows, that these are only air extricated during the congelation; and to the extrication of this air he ascribes the prodigious expansive force exerted by freezing water. The only question, therefore, is, by what means this air comes to be extricated, and to take up more room than it naturally does in the fluid? To this it may be answered, that perhaps part of the heat, which is discharged from the freezing water, combines with the air in its unelastic state, and, by restoring its elasticity, gives it that extraordinary force; as is seen also in the case of air suddenly extricated in the explosion of gun-powder. The degree of expansion of water, in the state of ice, is by some authors computed at about one-tenth of its volume. Oil and quicksilver shrink and contract after freezing.

If a vessel of water,' says Mr. Cavendish, with a thermometer in it, be exposed to the cold, the thermometer will sink several degrees below the freezing point, especially if the water be covered up so as to be defended from the wind, and care taken not to agitate it; and then on dropping in a bit of ice, or on mere agitation, spicule of ice shoot suddenly through the water, and the enclosed thermometer rises quickly to the freezing point, where it remains stationary.' In a note, he adds, 'that though, in conformity to the common opinion, he has allowed that mere agitation may set the water a freezing, yet some experiments made by Dr. Blagden seem to show, that it has not much, if any, effect of that kind, otherwise than by bringing the water in contact with some substance colder than itself. Though in general also the ice shoots rapidly, and the enclosed thermometer is raised very quickly; yet ne once observed it to rise very slowly, taking up not less than half a minute, before it ascended to the freezing point; but in this experiment the water was cooled not more than one or two degrees below freezing; and it should seem, that the more the water is cooled below the freezing point, the more rapidly the ice shoots and the enclosed thermometer rises.' Mr. Cavendish then observes, that from the foregoing experiments we learn, that water is capable of being cooled considerably below the freezing point, without any congelation taking place; and that, as soon as by any means a small part of it is made to freeze, the ice spreads rapidly through the whole of the water. The cause of this rise of the thermometer is, that all or almost all bodies, by changing from a fluid to a solid state, or from the state of an elastic to that of an unelastic fluid, generate heat; and that cold is produced by the contrary process. Thus all the circumstances of the

phenomenon may be perfectly well explained; for, as soon as any part of the water freezes, heat will be generated thereby, in consequence of the above-mentioned law, so that the newly formed ice and remaining water will be warmed, and must continue to receive heat by the freezing of fresh portions of water, till it is heated exactly to the freezing point, unless the water could become quite solid before a sufficient quantity of heat was generated to raise it to that point, which is not the case; and it is evident, that it cannot be heated above the freezing point; for as soon as it comes thereto, no more water will freeze, and consequently no more heat will be generated. The reason why the ice spreads all over the water, instead of forming a solid lump in one part, is, that, as soon as any small portion of ice is formed, the water in contact with it will be so much warmed as to be prevented from freezing, but the water at a little distance from it will still be below the freezing point, and will consequently begin to freeze. Were it not for this generation of heat, the whole of any quantity of water would freeze as soon as the process of congelation began; and in like manner the cold is generated by the melting of ice; which is the cause of the long time required to thaw ice and snow. It was formerly found that, by adding snow to warm water, and stirring it about until all was melted, the water was as much cooled as it would have been by the addition of the same quantity of water rather more than 150° colder than the snow; or, in other words, somewhat more than 150° of cold are generated by the thawing of the snow; and there is great reason to believe that just as much heat is produced by the freezing of water. The cold generated in the experiment just mentioned was the same whether ice or snow was used.'

FREEZING POINT denotes the point or degree of cold, by a mercurial thermometer, at which certain fluids begin to freeze, or, when frozen, at which they begin to thaw again. See CHE

MISTRY.

FREEZING RAIN, or raining ice, a very uncommon kind of shower, which fell in the west of England, in December 1672, of which we have several accounts in the Philosophical Transactions. This rain, as soon as it touched any thing above ground, as a bough or the like, immediately settled into ice; and, by multiplying and enlarging the icicles, broke all down with its weight. The rain that fell on the snow immediately froze into ice, without sinking into the snow at all. It made an incredible destruction of trees, beyond any thing in all history. 'Had it concluded with some gust of wind,' says a gentleman who was on the spot, it might have been of terrible consequence. I weighed the sprig of an ash tree, of just three quarters of a pound, the ice on which weighed sixteen pounds. Some were frighted with the noise in the air; till they discerned it was the clatter of icy boughs dashed against each other.' Dr. Beale observes, that there was no considerable frost observed on the ground during the whole; whence he concludes, that a frost may be very intense and dangerous on the tops of some hills and plains; while in other places it keeps at two,

three, or four feet distant above the ground, rivers, lakes, &c., and may wander about very furious in some places, and remiss in others not far off. The frost was followed by glowing heats, and an unusual forwardness of flowers and fruits.

FREIGHT, v. a. & n. s. Į Fr. fretter; pret. FREIGHTER, N. S. freighted; particip. fraught; which being now used as an adjective, freighted is adopted. To load a ship or vessel of carriage with goods for transportation; to load as the burden: to be the thing with which a vessel is freighted; any thing with which a ship is loaded; the money due for transportation of goods; he who freights a vessel.

I would

Have sunk the sea within the earth, or ere
It should the good ship so have swallowed, and
The freighting souls within her. Shakspeare.
The princes

Have to the port of Athens sent their ships,
Fraught with the ministers and instruments
Of cruel war.

Shakspeare. Troilus and Cressida. Prologue.
Nor is, indeed, that man less mad than these,
Who freights a ship to venture on the seas;
With one frail interposing plank to save
From certain death rolled on by every wave.

Dryden. He clears the deck, receives the mighty freight; The leaky vessel groans beneath the weight.

Id.

Pope's Odyssey.

Freighted with iron, from my native land I steer my voyage. A small vessel should not be stuffed with lumber. But if its freight be precious, and judiciously stowed, it may be more valuable than a ship of twice its bur

den.

Mason.

In

FREIGHT, in commerce, is the money paid for carriage of goods by sea; or the price paid for the use of a ship to transport goods. Ships are freighted either by the ton, or by the great: and, in respect of time, the freight is agreed for, at so much per month, or at a certain sum for the whole voyage. If a ship freighted by the great, happens to be cast away, the freight is lost; but if a merchant agrees by the ton, or at so much for every piece of commodities, and by any accident the ship is cast away, if part of the goods is saved, she ought to be answered her freight pro rata. The freight is most frequently determined for the whole voyage, without respect to time. Sometimes it depends on the time. the former case, it is either fixed at a certain sum for the whole cargo; or at so much per ton, barrel-bulk, or other weight or measure; or so much per cent. on the value of the cargo. This last is common on goods sent to America; and the invoices are produced to ascertain the value. The burden of the ship is generally mentioned in the contract, in this manner, one hundred tons, or thereby; and the number mentioned ought not to differ above five tons, at most, from the exact measure. If a certain sum be agreed on for the freight of the ship, it must all be paid, although the ship, when measured, should prove less, unless the burden be warranted. If the ship be freighted for transporting cattle, or slaves, at so much a head, and some of them die on the passage, freight is only due for such as are delivered alive; but, if for lading them, it is

due for all that were put on board. When a whole ship is freighted, if the master suffers any other goods besides those of the freighter to be put on board, he is liable for damages. It is common to mention the number of days that the ship shall continue at each port to load or unload. The expression used is work weather days; to signify, that Sundays, holidays, and days when the weather stops the work, are not reckoned. If the ship be detained longer, a daily allowance is often agreed on, in name of demurrage. If the voyage be completed in terms of the agreement, without any misfortune, the master has a right to demand payment of the freight before he delivers the goods. But if the safe delivery be prevented by any fault or accident, the parties are liable, according to the following rules. If the merchant do not load the ship within the time agreed on, the master may engage with another, and recover damages. If the merchant load the ship, and recal it after it has set sail, he must pay the whole freight; but if he unload it before it sets sail, he is liable for damages only. If a merchant loads goods which it is not lawful to export, and the ship be prevented from proceeding on that account, he must pay the freight notwithstanding. If the shipmaster be not ready to proceed on the voyage at the time agreed on, the merchant may load the whole, or part of the cargo, on board another ship, and recover damages; but chance, or notorious accident, by the marine law, releases the master from damages. If an embargo be laid on the ship before it sails, the charter-party is dissolved, and the merchant pays the expense of loading and unloading; but if the embargo be only for a short limited time, the voyage shall be performed when it expires, and neither party is liable for damages. If the shipmaster sails to any other port than that agreed on, without necessity, he is liable for damages; if, through necessity, he must sail to the port agreed on at his own expense. If a ship be taken by the enemy, and retaken, or ransomed, the charter-party continues in force. If the master transfer the goods from his own ship to another, without necessity, and they perish, he is liable for the value; but if his own ship be in imminent danger, the goods may be put on board another ship at the risk of the owner. If a ship be freighted out and home, and a sum agreed on for the whole voyage, nothing is due till it return: and the whole is lost if the ship be lost on the return. If a certain sum be specified for the homeward voyage, it is due, although the factor abroad should have no goods to send home. In the case of a ship freighted to Madeira, Carolina, and home, a particular freight fixed for the homeward voyage, and an option reserved for the factor at Carolina to decline it, unless the ship arrived before 1st of March; the ship-master, foreseeing he could not arrive there within that time, and might be disappointed of a freight, did not go there at all. He was found liable in damages, as the obliga tion was absolute on his part, and conditiona. only on the other. If the goods be damaged without fault of the ship or master, the owner is not obliged to receive them and pay freight, but

he must either receive the whole, or abandon the whole; he cannot choose those that are in best order, and reject the others. If the goods be damaged through the insufficiency of the ship, the master is liable; but, if it be owing to stress of weather, he is not accountable. It is customary for shipmasters, when they suspect damage, to take a protest against wind and weather at their arrival. But as this is the declaration of a party, it does not bear credit, unless supported by collateral circumstances. If part of the goods be thrown over-board, or taken by the enemy, the part delivered pays freight. The ship-master is accountable for all the goods received on board, by himself or mariners, unless they perish by the act of God, or of the king's enemies. Ship-masters are not liable for leakage on liquors; nor accountable for the contents of packages, unless packed and delivered in their presence..

FREGOSO (Baptist), doge of Venice, A. D. 1478, was author of several works: as, 1. The Life of Pope Martin V.; 2. A Treatise on Learned Ladies, in Latin: 3. On Memorable Actions; and 4. Against Love, both in Italian. He was deposed for arbitrary conduct, and banished.

FREHER (Marquard), a learned German author, born at Augsburg in 1705. He studied inder Cujacius in France, and in his twentythird year was made professor-at-law, at Heidelburg. He was afterwards made vice-president of court, by Frederic IV. elector palatine, who sent him to other courts as his ambassador. He wrote many works on antiquities, law, and history, though he died in 1614, aged only forty

nine.

FREIGIUS (John Thomas), a learned German, born at Fribourg, in the sixteenth century. He studied under Zasius and Remus, and was made rector of the College at Altorf in 1575. He died at Basil in 1583. He wrote, 1. Questiones Geometricæ et Stereometrica; 2. Logica Consultorum; 3. A Latin Translation of Frobisher's Voyages; 4. Notes, Historical and Political, &c., on Cicero's Orations.

FREIMERSHEIM, a town of France, in the department of Mont Tonnerre, late of Germany, in the palatinate of the Rhine, taken by the French in 1794. It is four miles N. N. E. of Landau

FREIND (John), a learned English physician and author, born at Croton, in Northamptonshire, in 1675. In 1696 ne published, in conjunction with Mr. P. Foulkes, an edition of two Greek orations, viz. of Aschines against Ctesiphon, and Demosthenes de Coronâ, with a new Latin version. In 1699 he wrote a letter to Dr. Sloane concerning a case of hydrocephalus, published in the Philosophical Transactions, and another letter in Latin to the same gentleman, De Spasmi Rarioris Historia, printed in the same Transactions. In 1703 his Émmenologia appeared; which gained him great reputation. In 1704 he was chosen professor of chemistry in the university of Oxford. In 1705 he attended the earl of Peterborough to Spain, as physician to the army there; and upon his return, in 1707, published an account of the earl's expedition.

In 1709 he published his Chemical Lectures. In 1712 he attended the duke of Ormond in Flanders, as his physician. In 1716 he was admitted a fellow of the college of physicians in London. The same year he published the first and third books of Hippocrates De Morbis Popularibus, with a Commentary on Fevers, written by himself. He sat M. P. for Launceston in Cornwall in 1722, where he distinguished himself by his opposition to the ministry. In March, 1722, he was committed to the tower on suspicion of being concerned in Atterbury's Plot, but was soon released on bail. While he was under confinement he wrote a Latin epistle to Dr. Mead, De Quibusdam Variorum Generibus; and began his History of Physic, the first part of which was published in 1725, and the second in 1726. Upon the accession of George II. he was appointed physician to the queen, who showed the utmost esteem for him. He died in London in 1728. His works were published together in Latin, folio, 1733, and dedicated to the queen.

FREINSHEMIUS (John), a learned and elegant author, born at Ulm in 1608. He published supplements to Livy, Tacitus, and Quintus Curtius, in sixty books, printed' at Strasburg in 1664. He wrote likewise Notes upon Quintus Curtius, Florus, Tacitus, and some other Latin classics; and died in 1660. He was professor at Upsal and Heidelburg.

FREISCHBACH, a town of France, in the department of Mont Tonnerre, late of Germany, in the palatinate of the Rhine, taken by the French in 1794. It is six miles E. N. E. of Landau.

FREJUS, the Forum Julii of ancient history, is a small town on the coast of Provence, France, situated amidst marshes on the river Argens. Its harbour has long been dry, the sea having retired nearly sixteen miles, but anchorage is found in the roadstead; and here are vestiges of an amphitheatre and of a large aqueduct. Frejus was the birth place of Agricola, but is more noted for being, in modern times, the place where Buonaparte landed on his return from Egypt in 1799, and on his more celebrated return from Elba in 1815. Population 2200. Thirty miles south-west of Nice, and forty north-east of Toulon.

FREN, n. s. A stranger; an old word wholly forgotten here, but retained in Scotland.

But now from me his madding mind is start, And wooes the widow's daughter of the glen; And now fair Rosalind hath bred his smart, So now his friend is changed for a fren.

Spenser.

FRENCH, in geography, a river of the United States, in Massachusetts, which rises from a pond in Worcester county, and runs into the Quinebauge in Connecticut; so named from the French Protestants, who settled on its banks, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantz, in 1685.

FRENCH BROAD, a navigable river of Tennesse, from 400 to 500 yards broad, formed by several head waters that rise in North Carolina, on the south-east of the Great Iron and Bald Mountains. After running fifty-six miles north-west between

FRENCH LANGUAGE, the language now spoken in France, which, like the English, is not an original language, but a medley of several. Those that prevail most, and are the basis of it, are, 1. The Celtic; whether that were a particular language itself, or whether it were only a dialect of the Gothic, as spoken in the west and North: 2. The Latin, which the Romans carried with them into Gaul, when they conquered it: and 3, The Teutonic, or that dialect of the Teutonic spoken by the Franks, when they passed the Rhine, and established themselves in Gaul. Of these three languages, in the space of about 1300 years, was the modern French gradually formed. Its progress was very slow. Both the Italian and Spanish were regular languages long before the French, Pasquier observes, it was under Philip of Valois that the French tongue first began to be polished; and that, in the register of the chamber of accounts of that time, there is a purity almost equal to that of the present age. However, the French was still very imperfect till the reign of Francis I. The custom of speaking Latin at the bar, and of writing the public acts and instruments of the courts of justice in that language, had made the French overlook their own language. The preceding ages had been remarkable for their ignorance, owing, in a great measure, to the long and calamitous wars in which France had been engaged: whence the French nobility deemed ignorance a kind of merit; and the generals did not regard whether they wrote or talked politely or not, provided they could fight well. But Francis I. restored learning, and changed the face of affairs; and after his time Henry Stevens printed his book, De la Precellence du Language François. The change was become very conspicuous at the end of the sixteenth century; and under Henry IV. Amyot, Coeffetau, and Malherbe, contributed towards bringing it to perfection; which cardinal Richelieu completed, by the establishment of the French Academy; a society of which the most distinguished persons in church and state have been members. Nor did the long reign of Louis XIV. contribute little to the improvement of the language; his taste for the fine arts rendered his court the

politest in Europe. Wit and magnificence seemed to vie; and his generals might have disputed with the Greeks, Romans, &c., the glory of writing well, if they could not that of fighting. From the court, the elegance and purity of the language soon spread itself into the provinces; where there are now very few who do not write

and speak good French. One character of the French language is, that it is natural and easy. The words are ranged in it much in the same order as the ideas in our minds; in which it differs exceedingly from the Greek and Latin, where the inversion of the natural order of words is reputed a beauty. The Hebrew surpasses even the French in this point, but comes short of it in copiousness and variety. But, as to the analogy of grammar, and the simplicity wherewith the moods of verbs are formed, the English has the advantage not only over the French, but over all the known languages in the world; though the peculiar expressions and idioms of the English are sometimes so quaint and extraordinary, that it loses a good deal of the advantage which its grammatical simplicity gives it over the rest. The French has few compound words, wherein it differs widely from the Greek, high Dutch, and English. This the French authors acknowledge to be a great disadvantage; the Greek and Dutch deriving a great part of their force and energy from the composition of words, and frequently expressing that in one sounding word, which the French cannot express but by a periphrasis. The diminutives in the French are as few as the compounds, the greatest part of those in use having lost their diminutive signification. The French is chiefly admired for its justness, purity, accuracy, and flexibility. It is the most universal and extensive language in Europe. The policy of states and courts has rendered it necessary for the ministers of princes, &c.; and the discoveries and improvements made by the French in arts and sciences have had the same effect among the learned, In Germany, and else where, the princesses and persons of distinction value themselves on understanding French; and, in several courts of Europe, French is almost as much used as the language of the country.

FRENCH REPUBLIC. See FRANCE, REPUBLIC, and REVOLUTION.

FRENCH RIVER, a river of Upper Canada, which runs from Lake Huron, to Lake Nipissing. FRENCHIFY, v. a. From French. To infect with the manner of France; to make a cox

comb.