Becker-Marquardt, Privatalterthum, II. ed. p. 416. Becq de Fouquiéres, Les jeux des anciens. Friedlaender, Sittengeschichte, I. p. 376. Lovatelli, Antichi monumenti illustrati, Rome, 1889, p. 165. Jackson in Philol. Journal, VII. 236. Music and Musical Instruments.-Gevaert, Histoire et theorie de la musique dans l'antiquité, Gaud, 1875-1881. Helmholtz, Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, § 13, 14. And as there is no trace of a distinction between Greek and Roman music, compare-Fortlage, Das musikalische System der Griechen, Leipzig, 1847. Westphal, Die Musik des griechischen Alterthums, Leipzig, 1883. III. Dress.-Marquardt-Mau, Privatleben, v. II. p. 475; Die Kleidung. Becker, Gallus, p. 409 (Dress of the men); p. 431 (Dress of the women). Writing Materials, Books, Libraries.—Becker, Gallus, pp. 324 and 334 (Books and Booksellers). Conze, Die Pergamenische Bibliothek, in Akad. des Wissensch. Berlin, Dec. 18th, 1884. Castellani, Delle Biblioteche nell' antichità, Bologna, 1884. De Rossi, La Biblioteca della sede apostolica, ed i cataloghi dei suoi manoscritti, Roma, 1884; De origine historia indicibus scrinii et Bibliothecae sedis apostolicae, Roma, 1886. Lanciani, Ancient Rome, ch. VII. p. 178 (The public Libraries of ancient and mediaval Rome). Houses.-Mazois, Le palais de Scaurus, Paris, 1822. Becker, Gallus, II. p. 213, sqq. Marquardt, Das Privatleben der Römer, vol. I., Leipzig, 1879; Sechster Abschnitt, Das Haus, p. 209 (Quellen). Friedlaender, Sittengeschichte, vol. I. p. 26. Fergusson, History of Architecture, vol. I. p. 363. Zumpt, Ueber die bauliche Einrichtung des Röm. Wohnhauses, Berlin, 1844. De Marchi, Ricerche intorno alle insulae o case a pigione di Roma antica, Milano, 1891 (a most useful work). CHAPTER XV. AGRICULTURE.' The Romans during the brightest period of their history were passionately devoted to agriculture and the pursuits of a rural life. For many centuries war and the cultivation of the soil were regarded as the only occupations befitting a free-born citizen. Numerous treatises upon farming in general and the various branches of the art were published from time to time, and of these a few have descended to us. The most important is that entitled De Re Rustica Libri III., by the celebrated M. Terentius Varro, the contemporary of Cicero; we have also a longer and more elaborate, but less original production by M. Iunius Columella, who probably flourished under the Emperor Claudius; a compilation in the form of a Farmer's Kalendar by Palladius Rutilius Taurus Æmilianus, a writer of uncertain date and doubtful authority; and a collection of shrewd maxims on various topics connected with the management of a farm and domestic economy by M. Porcius Cato, the Censor. These four, together with a manual, De Arte Veterinaria, by a certain Vegetius Renatus, have been frequently published together under the title Scriptores Rei Rusticae Veteres Latini. In addition, two books of the Naturalis Historia of Pliny, the XVII. and XVIII., are chiefly occupied by matters connected with agriculture, and Virgil has chosen this for the theme of the most perfect and charming didactic poem in existence. Divisions of the Subject-Res Rustica, to which Agricultura is frequently employed as equivalent, may be discussed under two heads.2 I. Agricultura, in the proper sense of the word, viz., the tillage of the ground. II. Pastio, the management of live stock. Again, Agricultura, in this its proper sense, may be subdivided into 1. Agricultura, in a more restricted sense; comprehending the art of raising the cereal grasses; leguminous plants; vegetables cultivated for their fibre, suc i as flax; for their oil, such as poppies; or for fodder, such as lucerne. 2. Cultus Arborum, arboriculture; comprehending the management of trees in general, but principally fruit trees, and especially the vine and the olive. 3. Cultus Hortorum, gardening; comprehending the rearing of flowers, pot herbs (olera), and small fruits. 1 The student may consult with profit the well known work, The Husbandry of the Ancients, by Adam Dickson, who was minister of Whittingham, in East Lothian, towards the close of the last century, and had great knowledge and experience as a practical farmer. I would beg to refer also to the articles AGRICULTURA, OLEA, VINUM, contributed by me to the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by Dr. W. Smith. The Lectures on Roman Husbandry, published recently by Dr. Daubeny of Oxford, contain interesting matter, and two lively articles on this subject will be found in vols. 87 and 104 of the Quarterly Review. Many valuable illustrations are contained in the various commentaries on the Georgics, especially in those of Martyn, and J. H. Voss. 2 See Varro R. R. L. 2. So also, Pastio may be subdivided into 1. Pastio Agrestis s. Res Pecuaria, comprehending the larger and more important domestic animals, such as sheep, oxen, horses, &c. 2. Pustio Villatica, comprehending the smaller and less important animals, such as poultry, bees, fish, &c. These are the divisions of the subject which form the groundwork of the Georgics: the first book is devoted to agricultura in the restricted sense Quid faciat laetas segetes, quo sidere terram Vertere The second to the Cultus Arborum Nunc te, Bacche, canam, nec non silvestria tecum The third to Pastio Agrestis Quae cura boum, qui cultus habendo, Sit pecori. The fourth to that particular department of Pastio Villatica, which seemed to afford the greatest scope for poetical ornament, viz., the habits and treatment of bees apibus quanta experientia parcis. And in the same book there are a few exquisite lines in which (116-148) Virgil excuses himself for not entering at length on the Cultus Hortorum. Following the example of the great poet, we shall make a few remarks on each of the divisions enumerated above, with the exception of gardening, the details belonging to that pursuit being somewhat minute and not frequently alluded to by the classical writers. I. AGRICULTura. Divisions of Agricultura.—Varro' treats of agricultura proper under four great heads. 1. Cognitio Fundi, the natural situation of the farm, the soil, and the climate. 2. Instrumenta, the persons, animals, and tools requisite for the cultivation of the farm. 3. Res quibus arva coluntur, the various operations to be performed, and the crops which form the object of these operations. 4. Tempora, the seasons at which the various operations ought to be performed. 1. Cognitio Fundi. This may be treated of under nine heads. (1.) Forma fundi naturalis. (2.) Terrae natura. (3.) Modus agri. (4.) De finibus tuendis. (5.) Si regio infesta. (6.) Si invectus et avectus idonei. (7.) Vecturae. (8.) Cultura et natura fundorum confinium. (9.) Villa et Stabula. (1.) Forma fundi naturalis, the natural aspect and character of the locality. 1 Varro R. R. I. 5. * Varro R. R. I. 6. 7. Colum. R. R. I. 2. 3. 4 (2.) Terrae natura, the quality of the soil. These two heads are indicated by Virgil in the lines (G. I. 50)— At prius ignotum ferro quam scindimus aequor, Et quid quaeque ferat regio, et quid quaeque recuset. While in Bk. II. 177, he enters more at large into the characteristics of different soils, and gives rules for distinguishing them,— Nunc locus arvorum ingeniis, quae robora cuique, Soils were classified according to their productive powers, their consistency, their . chief constituents, their colour, and even their taste. Thus we find land spoken of as-1. Pinguis (rich); 2. Macra--Ieiuna (poor); 3. Putris-Soluta (free); 4. Spissa-Densa (stiff); 5. Humida—Üliginosa (wet, swampy); 6. Sicca (dry); 7. Argillosa (Clayey); 8. Lapidosa (stony); 9. Glareosa (gravelly); 10. Arenosa (sandy); 11. Pulla-Nigra (black); 12. Cretosa (white); 13. Rubricosa (red); 14. Salsa (salt); 15. Amara (bitter); and many others.' (3.) Modus agri, the measurement of land and the considerations which regulated the size of a farm. It is sufficient here to state that the land measure in common use among the Romans was the Iugerum, which was less than twothirds and more than three-fifths of an imperial acre." (4.) De finibus tuendis, i. e., fences (sepes, septa, sepimenta). The fences in ordinary use were-a. Sepimentum naturale, the quickset hedge; b.* Sepimentum agreste, the wooden paling; c. Sepimentum militare, consisting of a ditch (fossa) crowned with a bank (agger) formed of the earth thrown out; d. Sepimentum fabrile, a stone or brick wall, with or without cement. (5.) Si regio infesta, the state of the surrounding country in so far as security of property was concerned, an inquiry by no means unnecessary, for a district might be infested with robbers or exposed to the predatory incursions of hostile tribes.1 (6.) Si Invectus et Avectus idonei, that is, if there were facilities for purchasing necessaries and for disposing of the products of the farm-good markets at hand for buying and selling. (7.) Vecturae, the accessibility of the farm; whether there were practicable roads or navigable streams." (8.) Cultura et Natura fundorum confinium. A certain influence was exercised upon the value of a farm by the mode of cultivation adopted in and the natural character of the lands adjacent.' (9.) Villa et Stabula, the last and one of the most important topics belonging to the Cognitio Fundi, was the consideration of the farm buildings, the dwellinghouse, and offices.8 The general term comprehending the whole of the farm buildings was Villa, and the structure might be discussed under three heads-a. Villa Urbana; b. Villa Rustica; c. Villa fructuaria. a. Villa Urbana.-This comprehended that portion of the buildings occupied 1 Varro R. R. I. 7. 8. 9. 2 Varro R. R. I. 10. 11. Cato R. R. 3. 3 Varro R. R. 1. 14. 4 Varro R. R. L. 16. 5 Varro R. R. I. 16. 6 Varro R. R. I. 16. 7 Varro R. R. I. 16. 8 Varro R. R. I. 11. 12. 13. Colum. R. R. L. 6. by the proprietor. The extent and the decorations depended entirely on his taste and his means, and might embrace anything between the simple cottage of primitive times nd the sumptuous palaces of the wealthy in the age of Augustus. b. Villa Rustica.-This comprehended that portion of the building intended for the accommodation of the Familia of slave labourers, and of the domestic animals. The apartments essential for the familia were-1. Culina, a spacious kitchen where the food of the establishment was cooked and eaten; 2. Čellae, sleeping closets for the Servi Soluti (see p. 127) and rooms for the Villicus and the Procurator; 3. Ergastulum, a sort of prison, frequently under ground, where the Servi Vincti (see p. 127) were confined when within doors. The buildings for the domestic animals were included under the general term Stabula, which comprehended Bubilia (byres), Ovilia (sheep huts), Equilia (stables), Harae (pig styes), and others. c. Villa fructuaria.-This comprehended that portion of the buildings intended for storing or preparing the different products of the farm. Such were the Cella Vinaria (wine cellar), Cella Olearia (oil cellar), Cella Torcularia (press room), Granaria (granaries), Foenilia (hay lofts), Palearia (chaff houses), besides a number of apartments for objects which required to be kept dry, included under the general terms Horrea and Apothecae. If the farm was of considerable extent the buildings were usually arranged round two courts (cortes), and in the centre of each of these was a large tank (piscina). Either within the enclosures of the farm buildings, or immediately adjoining, were erected a mill (pistrinum), and a bake-house (furnum); the thrashing floor (area), to be more particularly described below, was formed, if possible, within sight of the windows, and alongside of it was a huge covered shed called Nubilarium, capable of containing the whole grain crop. 2. Instrumenta. The instrumenta of a farm were divided into three classes-(1.) Genus Vocale. (2.) Genus Semivocale. (3.) Genus Mutum.' (1.) Genus Vocale, i. e., the human beings employed. These might be— a. Liberi Coloni; b. Mercenarii; c. Servi. a. Liberi Coloni, small proprietors who cultivated their own lands with their own hands, and with the aid of their families. b. Mercenarii, free hired labourers. These were but little employed except in the great operations of haymaking (foenisicium), the corn harvest (messis), and the vintage (vindemia), when a number of extra hands were required for a limited period. The regular work of a large farm was performed almost exclusively by c. Servi, slaves, forming the Familia Rustica. The Familia Rustica was, as we have seen above (p. 127), separated into two divisions-1. Servi Soluti, who were not subjected to any personal restraint, and 2. Servi Vincti, who worked in fetters (compede vincti) when abroad, and who, when within doors, were shut up in a sort of prison called Ergastulum. The slaves on a farm were also divided into gangs, according to the particular duties which they were required to perform, and in large establishments the subdivision of labour was pushed very far. Thus there were Bubulci (ox drivers), Asinarii (ass drivers), Armentarii (neat herds), Opiliones (shepherds), Cap 1 Varro R. R. L. 17. |