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Juvenal enumerates, among the inconveniences of jostling in a crowd-Planta mox undique magna Calcor et in digito clavus mihi militis haeret (S. III. 248.)-and again, when descanting on the folly of exciting the hostility of a throng of soldiers-Cum duo crura habeas, offendere tot caligas, tot = Millia clavorum (S. XVI. 24.) Caius, the son of Germanicus, who was reared in the camp, wore the Caliga when a child, out of compliment to the soldiers, and hence acquired the nickname of Caligula, by which he was familiarly distinguished. ' It must be observed, that the most striking illustrations of military costume and equipments contained in Montfaucon, and other great works upon Antiquities, are derived to a great extent from the sculptures upon Trajan's column, and therefore depict the soldier of the empire. We have given, in p. 426, representations of two legionaries and a standard-bearer, and we now subjoin a figure of the Emperor himself in his dress as a general, and also of a stone caster and of a slinger, all taken from the monument in question. These show clearly the general aspect of the common legionary soldiers and also of the irregular troops. The cloak worn by the Signifer is probably the ordinary Sagum, while that of the Emperor is unquestionably the Paludamentum.

In no one of the arts which have been practised by mankind from the earliest times, was the inferiority of the ancients to the moderns more conspicuous than in Navigation. Even those nations which became most celebrated for thei skill in this department, scarcely ever attempted to keep the sea during winter, but were wont to haul up (subducere) their vessels upon dry land towards the close of autumn, and not to haul them down (dedurere) to sea until the stormy equinoctial gales of spring were past, operations which they performed by machines (Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas) called Phalangae, consisting of

1 Tacit. Ann. I. 41. Suet. Octav. 25. Calig. 9. Vitell. 7.

2 The most important passages in ancient writers connected with Ships and Naval Warfare, are collected in SCHEFFERUS De militia navali veterum. Ubsal, 1654. Much valuable Information will he found in a recently published work by Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, entitled, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, Lon. 1848.

Hor. C. I. iv. 2 Varro ap. Non. s.v. palangae, p. 111. ed Gerl

a system of rollers, acting probably somewhat in the same manner as what is now called a patent slip. The Romans especially, notwithstanding the great extent of sea coast presented by Italy, never became addicted, as a people, to maritime pursuits; and in all matters connected with nautical affairs, were far surpassed by the Phoenicians and Tyrrhenians of the early ages, and by the Athenians, Carthaginians, Cretans, and Rhodians of a later epoch. Hence we shall not be surprised to find their language very defective in the technical terms connected with ships; and although ancient vessels, especially in so far as the rigging was concerned, were infinitely more simple in their structure than those now in use, there are many essential parts which we never find named in any Latin classical author, and several others, preserved in the grammarians, which have been borrowed without change from the Greek.

All sea-going vessels, throwing out of view for the present mere boats, skiffs, and small craft, may be divided into two classes, with reference to the purposes to which they were applied.

1. Merchantmen. (Naves mercatoriae—onerariae.)

2. Ships of War. (Naves

bellicae-longae—rostratae—aeratae.) The former were propelled chiefly by sails, the latter, although often fully rigged, depended, in all rapid evolutions, upon rowers, of whom they carried great numbers.

We shall first describe an ancient ship generally, including those parts which were common to both classes, and then point out the peculiarities which distinguished the war galleys.

Every ship (Navis) may be regarded as consisting of two parts: 1. the Hull, (Alveus,) and 2. the Tackling (Armamenta.)1

Alveus.-The Alveus was made up of, 1. The Keel (Carina.) 2. The Prow or fore part of the ship (Prora.) 3. The Stern or after-part of the ship (Puppis.) 4. The Hold, (Alveus in its restricted sense,) which contained the cargo, crew, and ballast (Saburra.) The Well, or bottom of the Hold, was called Sentina; into this the bilge-water (Nautea) drained, and was drawn off by a pump (Antlia.) The Ribs or frame-work were termed Costae or Statumina;2 the Planking Tabulae, the seams of which were payed with wax, pitch, or similar substances (hence Ceratae puppes.) Undecked vessels were Naves apertae, as opposed to Naves tectae s. constratae, the decks themselves being Tabulata s. Pontes. 3 Very frequently vessels were only partially decked, and the sailors passed from one end to the other by means of gangways, (Fori,) or from side to side by cross planks (Transtra s. Iuga.) The Fori and Transtra served also as benches for the rowers. 4

Armamenta.—Of these, the most important were

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1. Anchorae, the anchors, of which there were usually several, resembling closely in form those now employed, fitted with cables (Ancoralia.) The anchor was thrown from the prow (Ancora de prora iacitur) when the ship was required to ride, (Consistere ad ancoram-stare s. expectare in ancoristenere navem in ancoris,) and on going to sea was weighed (Ancoram tollere 8. Vellere, or in the case of great haste, Praccidere.) A ship in harbour was

1 Alreus and Armamenta stand opposed to each other in Liv. XXXIII. 34.

2 Pers. S. VI. 31. Caes. B. C. L. 54.

3 Val. Flacc. VIII. 305. Tacit. Ann. II. 6.

4 Cic. de S. 6. Isidor. XIX. ii. 2. 5. Virg. Æn. VI. 411. Charis. p. 19. ed. Putsch. Diomed. p. 314. ed Putsch.

eg. The ship in which St. Paul sailed had four. (Act. Apost. xxvii. 29.)

moored by hawsers, (Retinacula-Orae,) which were unloosed when the ship went out, and hence the phrases-Oram resolvere-Navem solvere-or simply Solvere-signify to set sail.

2. Gubernaculum, the rudder, with the Clavus, its handle or tiller.

The

ancient rudders were not hinged to the stern posts as ours are, but were what are technically termed paddle-helms, and of these there were usually two in the ship, placed one on each side of the stern. A rudder of this kind is seen in the annexed cut, taken from a tomb at Pompeii, and ships were commonly steered in this manner as late as the fourteenth century.

The

3. Mali, the masts, with their yards, (Antennae s. brachia,) whose extremities, the yard arms, were termed Antennarum cornua. mast rested in a socket, or step called Modius, and high up above the main-yard the mast was embraced by a sort of cup-shaped cage called Carchesium, corresponding to what is now termed a top. It served as a lookout place; and in ships of war, men and military engines were sometimes stationed in the Carchesium to command the decks of an opponent. The ships of the ancients, even when of large size, had seldom, if ever, more than two masts, and the second mast was usually very small, and placed very far forward. The masts were, especially in smaller vessels, often made moveable, and might be stepped or unstepped at pleasure, whence the phrases-Malum attollere s. erigere, and M. ponere s. inclinare.

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4. Vela, the sails, called also, from the materials of which they were fabricated, Lintea or Carbasa. There was usually one very large square sail (Acatium) on the mainmast, and above it was hoisted, in calm weather, a small topsail (Supparum s. Suppara velorum.) The sail attached to the foremast (Velo prora suo) was also very small, and seems to have been termed Dolon or Artemon. Pliny alludes to a mizen sail also, called Epidromos by Isidorus, but how it was rigged we know not-Iam vero nec vela satis esse maiora navigiis, sed quamvis amplitudini antennarum singulae arbores sufficiant, super eas tamen addi velorum alia vela, praeterque alia in proris, et alia in puppibus pandi ac tot modis provocari mortem.

5. Funes s. Rudentes are words which comprehend the whole rigging, whether standing or running. The ropes specially named being the Pedes, that is, the ropes attached to the two lower corners of the square sail, what are now termed the sheets and tacks, the tack being sometimes called Propes, to distinguish it from the Pes, or sheet proper-the Opisphorae, or braces attached to the

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1 The authorities for Ora in the sense of a cable or hawser, are Liv. XXII. 29. XXVIII. 36. Quintil. IV. 2.

2 Virg. En. V. 176, and note of Servius.

4 Lucil. ap. Non. s.v. Carchesia, p. 274. ad Gerl. Serv. ad Virg. En. V. 77. Apulei. Florid IV. 22.

6 Isidor. XIX. iii. 2. Lucan. V. 428. Stat. S. III. i. 27. Senec. Epp. LXXVIL Fest. a

. Supparus. Supparum. pp. 310. 340.

6 Juv. S. XII. 69. Isidor. 1.c.

7 Plin. H.N. XIX. prooem. Isidor. 1.c.

8 Isidor. XIX. iv. 3.

Isidor. XIX. 46.

extremity of the yard, by which it was trimmed-the Ceruchi,' which attached the two extremities of the yard to the top of the mast, and the Anquina, which attached the centre of the yard to the top of the mast. The large ropes, now called stays, which support the mast, were called górovo by the Greeks, but the Latin name does not occur. Remulcum was a hawser used by one vessel when towing another.

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6. Remi, the oars, the flat blades of which were the palmulae or tonsae, were attached each to its thole or pin, (scalmus s. paxillus,) by a leather strap called stropha or struppus, the Teore of the Greeks.

Insigne s. Figura (Tagάonov) was the figure-head attached to the prow, which gave its name to the ship, in addition to which, the bows were frequently decorated with an eye, represented in painting or carving, and both the stem and stern generally terminated in a tapering extension which was shaped so as to resemble the head and neck of a goose, and was hence termed Cheniscus (xnvíoxos.) See cut in p. 455.

Aplustre (pl. Aplustra s. Aplustria.) This was a decoration made of wood, attached to the stern, and bearing a resemblance to a plume of feathers. We have nothing corresponding to it in ordinary modern ships, but it is an object constantly represented upon ancient sculptures and medals, may be seen in the annexed cut, taken from a large brass of Commodus.

Sacellum. In the after part of the vessel also was a niche or small chapel containing images of the god or gods to whose protection the vessel was consigned, (ingentes de puppe deos,) and hence this part of the ship was named Tutela.

Vexillum-Taenia-Fascia, were used to designate a small streamer attached to a pole placed sometimes on the prow, and sometimes on the stern, which served as a vane to indicate the direction of the wind. See the cut given above, and the coin of M. Antonius, in p. 444.

Naves Longae. Ships of war differed from merchant ships in their general form, being long and narrow, in order to ensure speed, while the latter were broad and round so as to afford capacious stowage.

The leading characteristic of the war ships of the ancients was, that they were galleys, depending upon rowers chiefly as the propelling power, (Remus, an oar-Remex, a rower-Remigium, the whole rowing apparatus,) and they were rated according to the number of ranks of oars (ordines remorum.) Thus those vessels which carried one rank of oars, (quae simplice ordine agebantur,) were called Monocrota (uovnges)-two ranks, biremes-dicrota s. dicrotae (dings)-three ranks, triremes, (rgings)-four ranks, quadriremes (TeTengus) -five ranks, quinqueremes, (Erness,) and so on for higher numbers.

No question connected with the mechanical contrivances of ancient times, has given rise to greater discussion, than the manner in which the ranks of oars were arranged. The ordinary supposition that they were placed in horizontal tiers, one row directly above another, occasions little difficulty, if we do not go beyond

1 Val. Flacc. I. 469. Lucan. VIII. 176. X. 495.

Anquinae, and not anchorae, is the true reading in Non. p. 367. See also Isidor. XIX. iv. 7 3 Vitruv. X. 8.

Isidor. XIV. iv. 9.

two or even three rows, but the length and weight of the oars belonging to the upper tier of a quinquereme must have been such as to render them most unwieldy, if not altogether unmanageable, and when we come to deal with ships of six, seven, ten, sixteen, and even forty rows of oars, which are mentioned by ancient writers, the difficulty becomes absolutely insuperable. Nor do ancient monuments afford much aid, for, although they abound in representations of ships, the figures are not sufficiently distinct to render effectual assistance, but it cannot be concealed that, as far as they go, they lend no support to any opinion which supposes the oars to have been placed otherwise than in parallel tiers.

Rostrum (Bonos.) Another characteristic of a ship of war was the Rostrum, a huge spike, or bundle of spikes, made of bronze or iron, projecting from the bow of the vessel, on a level with or below the water line. The purpose to which this instrument was applied, will be explained below.

Propugnacula. Turres.-Towers, or elevated platforms, were occasionally erected on the decks of war galleys, which were manned with soldiers, who poured down darts and other missiles upon their opponents, such vessels being termed Naves Turritae.

Crew of a Ship.-The crew of a merchant vessel are usually designated simply as Nautae, the pilot was called Gubernator, and might or might not be at the same time the commander of the vessel, the Magister navis, who is sometimes designated by the Greek word Nauclerus. The captain of a ship of war was called Praefectus or Navarchus, the admiral of a fleet, Praefectus Classis, and his ship Navis Praetoria. The rowers (Remiges) as well as those who navigated and fought the galleys, were comprehended under the expression Navales Socii or Classici. These, especially the rowers, were frequently slaves or freedmen, and, as in the case of the land forces, a certain number were furnished by the allied states and by the Coloniae Maritimae. In addition to the Socii Navales, there were always a considerable number of regular soldiers on board, who, when the Romans first engaged in naval warfare, were ordinary troops of the line, but were afterwards raised as a separate corps (in classem scripti) from those classes of the citizens whose fortune did not entitle them to serve in the legions. These marines are generally styled Classiarii, or, by adoption of the Greek equivalent, Epibatae; and under the empire, when two fleets were constantly kept ready for action, one at Ariminum, and the other at Misenum, they were organized in legions (Legio Classica.)'

Naval Warfare.—When two ships engaged individually, if tolerably well matched, the great object aimed at by each, was, either by running up suddenly alongside of the enemy, to sweep away (detergere) or disable a large number of his oars, or, by bearing down at speed, to drive the Rostrum full into his side or quarter, in which case the planks were generally stove in, and the vessel went down. But if one of the parties was so decidedly inferior in seamanship, as to be unable to cope with his antagonist in such manoeuvres, he endeavoured, as he approached, to grapple with him, and then the result was decided, as upon land, by the numbers and bravery of the combatants. It was in this way that the Romans, under Duillius, achieved their first great naval victory (B.C. 260)

1 Liv. XXI. 49, 50. XXII. 11. 57. XXIV. 11. XXVI. 17. 35. 48. XXVII. 42. XXVIII. 45. XXIX. 25. XXXIL 23. XXXVI. 43. XXXVII. 16. XLII. 48. Cic. in Verr. I. 20. 11. 55. III 80. V. 17. 24. Hirt. de bell. Alex. 11. de bell. Afric. 20. 62. Tacit. Ann. IV. 5. 27. XIV. 8. XV. 51. Hist. L. 6. 31. 36. 97. II. 8. 11. 14. 17. 22. 67. III. 55. Suet. Octav 16. Nero 31. Galb. 12. Dion Cass. LXIV. 3.