Threces, armed as Thracians, with a light circular buckler (parma) and short crooked cutlas; (sica;) Samnites, who, we cannot doubt, were furnished like the Samnites of old (Liv. IX. 40.) with a convex shield, (scutum,) broad and even at top, (summum latius fastigio aequali,) the two sides gradually converging to a point, (ad imum cuneatius,) a wadded breast-plate, (spongia pectori tegumentum,) crested helmet, (galea cristata,) and with a greave on the left leg; (sinistrum crus ocrea tectum ;) Mirmillones, a word of doubtful origin, equipped as Gaulish warriors; Hoplomachi, in a complete suit of mail like those who fought in the front ranks of the Grecian phalanx.

Retiarii were provided with a net (Iaculum-Rete) and a three-pointed spear (Fuscina) with a long handle, but were destitute of defensive armour; they were usually paired with a heavy armed opponent, a Mirmillo for example, who was in this case designated Secutor; the Retiarius being no match for his antagonist in a hand-to-hand fight, endeavoured, as the latter approached, to throw his net so as to entangle him in its meshes, and, if successful, stabbed him with the fuscina before he could extricate himself. If the cast failed he was compelled to take to flight, was chased by the Secutor, (and hence the name,) and if overtaken easily despatched. If, however, the Retiarius contrived to evade his pursuer until he was prepared for a second throw, then the contest was renewed as at first, and continued until one or the other was baffled or exhausted. A most vivid description of a combat of this nature will be found in the eighth Satire of Juvenal (199-210.)

Less frequently named than the preceding were Dimachaeri, who fought with two swords; Laquearii, analogous to the Retiarii, but who had lassos or nooses instead of nets; Andabatae, who wore helmets with close visors, so that they fought blindfold; Essedarii, who fought from Celtic war chariots; (Esseda ;) Meridiani, who fought in the middle of the day, inferior performers, it has been conjectured, who were brought forward at an hour when the majority of the spectators had retired to repose during the noontide heat; Provocatores, of whom we know nothing, except that they were occasionally matched with Samnites. Gladiators, as remarked above, generally fought in pairs, and all such were termed Ordinarii; at times, however, by way of variety, a number rushed together in a meleé, and such were named Catervarii. Bestiarii were those who, in the Venationes, already described, fought with wild beasts.

Munus. Editor.-The term Munus is applied specially to denote a Gladiatorial show, either in consequence of the connection which originally subsisted between these displays and funeral obsequies, which were specially termed Munera, or from the circumstance that they were regarded in the light of a gift, bestowed by the magistrate or the private individual at whose cost they were exhibited, and who presided under the title of Editor (Spectaculi) or Munerarius, the latter term having been, as we are told, first employed by Augustus.

1

Place of Exhibition.-The first show of Gladiators took place, as stated above, in the Forum Boarium, and when they were brought forward in connection with funeral rites, they would always be exhibited near the funeral pyre or in some place of general resort. When they formed a part of great public solemnities, they at first fought in the Circus Maximus, but subsequently Amphitheatres were erected as the kind of edifice best adapted for these contests. Mode of Procedure.-When the day of the show had arrived, of which public

1 Munus is applied also, though less frequently, to games or shows in general.

notice was given some time beforehand, accompanied by a description of the number, names, and previous exploits of the combatants, (Libellus munerarius,) the Gladiators marched in procession into the Arena of the Amphitheatre, and were there arranged in pairs, much pains having been previously bestowed upon matching individuals nearly equal in strength and skill. Their arms and equipments were then produced and carefully examined; a prelude (Prolusio) followed, in which the parties fenced with wooden swords and pointless spears, exhibiting the graceful attitudes and dexterous evolutions which they had been taught by the Lanista. The strife then commenced in earnest upon a signal given by the Editor. As soon as a Gladiator succeeded in inflicting a decided wound on his adversary, he exclaimed in a loud voice, Hoc Habet-It is a hit. If the injury ap, eared to be of such a nature as to disable the sufferer, and prevent him from continuing the fight, the Editor replied, Habet, and the life or death of the wounded man, who now held up his finger in token of submission, depended upon the pleasure of the president, who usually, as a matter of courtesy, referred it to the audience. If the man was a favourite, had fought well, and betrayed no symptoms of terror, the crowd testified their approbation by shouts and clapping of hands, and he was allowed to retire; but if he had, from any cause, incurred their displeasure, they depressed their thumbs in silence, and the conqueror, in obedience to a look from the Editor, plunged his weapon into the body of the unresisting victim. The attendants then rushed in, dragged off the corpse by a hook to an apartment called the Spoliarium, sprinkled fresh sand on the Arena, and new actors entered to perform like tragedies. 1

1 Much information with regard to various matters connected with Gladiatorial contests may be gathered from a very curious series of bas reliefs discovered at Pompeii, which are accurately delineated in the great work of Mazois, and in the Museo Borbonico.

11*

Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, in an ancient style of art, from a bas relief in the Capitol

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER X.

Religion of Rome.-Zeller, Religion und Philosophie bei den Römern, Leipzig, 1872. Boissier, La religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins, Paris, 1874. Preller, Römische Mythologie (3 ed.), Berlin, 1881. Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III., Leipzig, 1885. Friedlaender, Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte, &c. (6 ed.), Leipzig, 1890, III. p. 507, sqq. Roscher, Ausführlicher Lexikon der griech, und röm. Mythologie, Leipzig, 1884, sqq., cf. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom in Altertum, Leipzig, 1883.

Domestic Gods. Lares. Penates.-Schömann, Opuscula academica, Greifswald, 1840, I. p. 350, sqq. Scharbe, De geniis, manibus et laribus, Kazan, 1854. Jordan, Vesta und die Laren, Berlin, 1865. Klee, De geniorum, manium, larium natura, Dresden, 1866.

Dii Novemsiles.-Wissowa, De dis Romanorum indigetibus et novemsidibus, Marburg, 1892.

Dii Indigetes.—Peter in Roscher, Lexikon, II. p. 129, s.v. Indigitamenta. Semones.-Jannetaz, Étude sur Semo Sancus Fidius, &c., Paris, 1885.

Foreign Deities. - Morsbacher, Ueber Aufnahme griechischer Gottheiten, &c., Jülich, 1882.

Holy Things and Holy Places.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 145, sqq.

Templum, Fanum, Delubrum.-Jordan, Hermes, 1879, p. 567, sqq. De Ruggiero, Dizionario epigrafico, I. p. 139, sqq.

Ministers of Religion. -Mommsen, Röm. Staatsrecht, II. p. 1102, sqq.; p. 1049, sqq. Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 225, sqq. Mercklin, Ueber die Anordnung und Eintheilung des röm. Priesterthums, St. Petersbourg, 1853. Barth, Die Priester der vier grossen Collegien, &c., Berlin, 1871.

Pontifices.-Mommsen, Röm. Staatsrecht, II. p. 18, sqq. Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 235, sqq. Cauvet, Le droit pontifical chez les anciens Romains, Caen, 1869. Bouché-Leclercq, Les pontifes, &c., Paris, 1871. Schwede, De pontificum collegii pontificisque maximi in republica potestate, Lipsiae, 1874. Preibisch, Quaestiones de libris_pontificalibus, Vratislaviae, 1874; Fragmenta librorum pontificalium, Tilsae, 1878. Picon, Organisation et compétence du college des pontifes, Angers,

1883.

Augures. Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 397, sqq. Kittlitz, De rerum auguralium post legem Ogulniam facta mutatione, Liegnitz, 1858. Maronski, De auguribus Romanis, Neustadt, 1859. Regell, De augurum publicorum libris, Vratislaviae, 1878; Fragmenta auguralia,

Hirschberg, 1882. Spinazzola in De Ruggiero, Dizionario epigrafico, I. p. 778, sqq.

Quindecemviri Sacrorum.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 380, sqq. Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination, Paris, 1882, IV. p. 286, sqq.

Epulones.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 347, sqq.

Fratres Arvales.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 447, sqq. Henzen, Acta fratrum Arvalium, Berolini, 1874. Gatti in De Ruggiero, Dizionario epigrafico, I. p. 682, sqq.

Haruspices or Extispices.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 410, sqq Clairin, De haruspicibus apud Romanos, Paris, 1880.

Fetiales.-Mommsen, Röm. Staatsrecht, I. p. 249, sqq. Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 416, sqq. Weiss, Le droit fétial et les Fétiaux à Rome, Paris, 1883. Fusinato, Dei feziali e del diritto feziale, Roma, 1884. Flamines.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 326, sqq. Salii.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 428, sqq.

Vestales. Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 336, sqq. Lanciani, L'atrio di Vesta, Roma, 1884. Jordan, Der Tempel der Vesta, die Vestalinnen und ihr Haus, Berlin, 1884.

Luperci.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 439, sqq. Unger, Die Lupercalien (Rhein. Museum, 1881, p. 50, sqq.)

Sodales Augustales.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 463, sqq. Dessau, De sodalibus et flaminibus Augustalibus (Ephem. Epigr., III. p. 205, sqq.)

Prayers. Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 174, sqq. Lasaulx, Studien des classischen Altertums, Regensburg, 1854, p. 137, sqq. Peter, De Romanorum precationum carminibus, Breslau, 1884.

Offerings.-Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 169, sqq.

Ludi Circenses.-Friedlaender in Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 504, sqq. Friedlaender, Darstellungen, &c. (6 ed.), II. p. 322, sqq. Athletae.-Ricci in De Ruggiero, Dizionario epigrafico, I. p. 744, sqq. Ludi Scaenici -Friedlaender in Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 528, sqq. Friedlaender, Darstellungen, &c. (6 ed.), II. p. 435, sqq.

Munera Gladiatoria. Friedlaender in Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung, III. p. 554, sqq. Friedlaender, Darstellungen, &c, (6 ed.), II. p. 359, sqq. Meier, De gladiatura romana quaestiones selectae, Bonnae, 1881. Buecheler, Die staatliche Anerkennung des Gladiatorenspiels (Rhein. Mus., 1883, p. 476, sqq.) Mommsen, Senatus consultum de sumptibus ludorum gladiatoriorum minuendis, &c. (Ephem. Epigraph., VII. p. 288, sqq.)

CHAPTER XI.

THE ROMAN CALENDAR.

In giving an account of the Roman Calendar, it will be convenient to discuss, in the first place, that portion of the subject concerning which our information is full and complete; and then to pass on to the consideration of those points, which are comparatively doubtful and obscure. According to this plan, we shall commence with an account of the constitution of the Julian Year.i

Julian Year.—At the time when Julius Cæsar attained to supreme power, the Calendar had, from causes which will be afterwards explained, fallen into great confusion. The Dictator, therefore, resolved to reform the whole system, and being himself versed in astronomy, 2 with the aid of Sosigenes, a peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria, the great school of the sciences, introduced B.C. 45, that division of time which, with a few modifications, is still employed by all Christian nations, and received from its author the name of the Julian Year.

The solar year, or the period between two vernal equinoxes, was supposed to contain 365 days; but to prevent the inconvenience which would have arisen from the use of fractional parts, three years out of four were regarded as consisting of 365 days, while every fourth year had 366.

Months of the Julian Year.-The Roman year had from a very early period been divided into twelve months. This number and the ancient names were retained, but the distribution of the days was changed. By the new arrangement, Ianuarius, the first month, had 31 days; Februarius, 28 in ordinary years, and every fourth year, 29; Martius, 31; Aprilis, 30; Maius, 31; Iunius, 30; Quintilis, 31; Sextilis, 31; September, 30; October, 31; November, 30; December, 31.

In the year B.C. 44, Marcus Antonius, at that time Consul, proposed and carried a law by which the name of Quintilis was changed to Iulius, in honour of Iulius Caesar, whose birth-day was on the 12th of that month; 3 and at a subsequent period, B.C. 8, by a similar piece of flattery, the name Sextilis was changed to Augustus, because the emperor had in that month entered upon his first Consulship, had achieved some remarkable victories, and had celebrated three triumphs. Other princes rejected, or courted like distinctions. September

5

1 The principal authorities are Plutarch. Vit. Caes. 59. Dion Cassius XLIII. 26. Appian. B.C. II. 154. Öv. Fast. III. 155. Sueton. Jul. 40. Plin. H.N. XVIII. 25. Censorinus 20

Macrob. S. I. 14. Ammian, Marcell. XXVI. 1.

2 See Macrob. S. I. 16.

3 Macrob. S. L. 12. Dion Cass. XLIV. 5. Appian. B.C. II. 154.

4 Sueton. Octav. 31. Dion Cass. LV. 6. Macrobius has preserved the decree of the Senate, the date is given by Censorinus 22.

5 Sueton. Tib. 26.