Weiske,

Perduellio.-Mommsen, Röm. Staatsrecht, II. p. 615, sqq. Hochverrath und Majestät, Leipzig, 1836. Zirkler, Die gemeinrechtliche Lehre von Majestät und Hochverrath, Stuttgart, 1836. Köstlin, Die perduellio unter den röm. Königen, Tübingen, 1841.

Vis.-Hermann, Disputatio de lege Lutatia, Göttingen, 1844. Lange, De legious Porciis libertatis civium vindicibus, Giessae, 1862.

Parricidium-Bruner, De parricidii crimine et quaestoribus parricidii, Helsingfors, 1856. Gorius, De parricidii notione apud antiquissimos

Romanos, Bonnae, 1869.

Repetundae.-Zumpt, De legibus judiciisque repetundarum, &c., Berolini, 1845. Mommsen, Corpus Inscr. Lat., I. p. 49, sqq.

Ambitus.-Isler, Ueber das Poetelische Gesetz de ambitu (Rhein. Mus., 1873, p. 472, sqq.) Lange, Ueber das Foetelische Gesetz de ambitu (Rhein. Mus., 1874, p. 500, sqq.)

CHAPTER X.

RELIGION OF ROME.

The subject naturally divides itself into three heads.

1. The Gods worshipped, their names, attributes, history, and mutual relations. 2. The Ministers by whom their worship was conducted. 3. The Mode of worship.

I. THE GODS WORSHIPPED.

General Characteristics of Roman Mythology.-In order that we may be able to form any distinct conception of Roman Mythology, it is essentially necessary to bear in mind the fact that the Romans were originally a mixed people, formed by the coalition of at least three distinct races-Latins-Sabines-Etruscans -and that at all events the first of these races was itself compound, being made up of Pelasgians, grafted upon some early Italian stock. Hence, when united, their religion could not fail to present confused and heterogeneous combinations. The simple belief of the primitive mountain tribes, stamped by a pure and somewhat stern morality, was mingled with the more soft and imaginative system of the pastoral Pelasgians, and with the dark and gloomy superstition of the Etruscans, from whom, avowedly, all that was gorgeous and imposing in the national ritual was derived. The fusion and amalgamation of these materials seems, however, to have been fully completed at a very early epoch, since we find no traces of jealousy or collision between inconsistent and contending creeds. But there was another and still more important source of complication. As the Romans gradually became acquainted with the colonists of Southern Italy, and extended their conquests beyond the Ionian Sea, they found several Greek divinities bearing a marked resemblance, both in name and attributes, to their own, just as might be expected from the Pelasgian element common to both nations. This circumstance having attracted notice, it would appear that all classes in the community speedily arrived at the conclusion, that the Religion of Greece and that of Rome were in all respects radically the same. Hence every Greek God was identified with some member of the Roman Pantheon, even where the resemblance was very slight, or where there was no resemblance at all, and the genealogy, history, and adventures of the one, were unhesitatingly transferred to the other. In so far as the early Italian religion was concerned, the tales connected with their deities appear to have been meagre, and not peculiarly interesting. A considerable number of these native legends has been preserved by Ovid in his Fasti, and others will be found scattered in Propertius, Tibullus, and Virgil; but the great mass of the mythology in these writers, as well as in Catullus, Horace, and the later poets, is almost purely Greek.

It is evident, therefore, that a full account of all the Gods celebrated in the

Latin Classics would involve a complete treatise upon Greek Mythology, a subject which does not fall within the compass of a work like the present. We must be content, in this place, simply to name the most important divinities, adopting, as far as it goes, the classification recognised by the Roman authors themselves. Dii Consentes.-The Romans and the Etruscans recognised Twelve Great Gods, six male and six female, who met together in council and regulated all things in heaven and on earth. There were the XII. Dii Consentes s. Complices whose gilded statues were ranged along the Forum, (Varro R. R. I. 1,) the same, doubtless, with those enumerated by Ennius

Iuno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,

Mercurius, Iovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.

1. Iovis, Iovis PATER, IUPITER, DIESPITER, the Zevs of the Greeks, the TINA or TINIA of the Etruscans, was Lord Supreme. He was worshipped on the Capitoline under the titles of Optimus Maximus, Capitolinus, and Tarpeius; on the Alban Mount he received the homage of the Latin Confederacy, as Iupiter Latiaris. Of his numerous titles, many were derived from the sway which he exercised over the elements. Hence he was termed Lucetius, Diespiter, Tonans, Fulguritor, Imbricitor, and, from a legend that he had been drawn down from heaven, in the age of Numa, to teach how his wrath, when indicated by storms, might be appeased, Elicius. The Ides of each month were sacred to Jove, and a great festival, the Feriae Latinae, was celebrated in honour of him annually on the Alban Mount. It is said to have been instituted by Tarquinius Superbus in order to cement the union between Rome and the Latin States; but it probably originated at a much earlier epoch. The sacred banquet, called Epulum Iovis, was held on the 13th November (Non. Novembr.)

2. IUNO, a modified form of IOVINO, the wife of Iovis, and Queen of Heaven, (Juno Regina,) was identified with the "Hex of the Greeks, and the CUPRA of the Etruscans. One of her chief duties was to preside over married life, and hence she was addressed as Matrona, Iugalis, Pronuba. When lending aid at childbirth, she was styled Lucina, and in this capacity was identified with the Greek Einovia. In her temple on the Arx, she was worshipped as Iuno Moneta, which seems to mean, the Warning Goddess, and adjacent to this shrine was the public mint. Her rites were celebrated from a very early epoch with peculiar sanctity at Lanuvium, where she was named Iuno Sospita s. Sispita, i.e. the Saviour. The Kalends of each month were sacred to Juno, and she received special homage on the Matronalia, celebrated by the Matrons on the first of March.

3. MINERVA, the MENRVA of the Etruscans, was identified with the Ilanλas 'Alun of the Greeks. She was the patroness of all learning, science, and art, and exercised a special superintendence over spinning and weaving, the two chief departments of female industry. Her great festival was the Quinquatrus s. Quinquatria, which commenced on the 19th of March, and eventually was prolonged for five days. A second festival was celebrated on the Ides of June, and termed Quinquatrus Minusculae. Since Minerva was goddess of learning, schools were under her protection. School-boys had holidays during the greater Quinquatria, and at this season each brought a gift to his master, which was termed Minerval.

It would appear that Iovis, Iuno, and Minerva, were worshipped jointly in the citadel of every great Etruscan city; and we have seen that they were regarded as the special protectors of Rome, and occupied the great national temple on the Capitoline (p. 39).

On the 4th September, (Prid. Non. Septembr.) and for several days following, the great games, styled by way of distinction, Ludi Magni, or Ludi Romani, were celebrated in honour of these three deities.

4. VESTA, who must be regarded as the same with the 'Earía of the Greeks, seems to have been a Pelasgic goddess. She was worshipped in every mansion as the protectress of the domestic hearth; and the ever-blazing altar of her circular temple beside the Forum was looked upon as the hearth of the whole Roman people considered as one family. In the most sacred recesses of this sanctuary were preserved certain holy objects, upon which the safety of the City was supposed to depend; and when Greek superstition became rife, it was believed that chief among these was the Palladium, the image of Pallas, which fell from heaven when Ilus was founding Ilium, and which was brought to Italy by Æneas, along with the Phrygian Penates. The festival of Vesta, the Vestalia, was celebrated on the 9th of June (V. Id. Iun.)

5. APOLLO, whose name appears on Etruscan monuments under the form APLU, is the Φοίβος Απόλλων of the Greeks, who was eventually identified with "Haos, the Sun-God. The worship of Apollo was not introduced at Rome until a comparatively late period. No temple was erected to him until B.C. 428, and the Ludi Apollinares, celebrated each year on the 5th of July (III. Non. Quintil.) were not instituted until B.C. 212.

6. DIANA, or LUNA, the Moon-Goddess, must be regarded as the same with the LOSNA, or LALA, of the Etruscans, and was identified with the Greek Hunting-Goddess, "Agreus, the sister of Phoebus Apollo, who was herself identified, by post-Homeric poets, with Zɛλý»n. There can be no doubt that DIANA is a contracted form of DIVA 8. DIA IANA, Iana being the wife of Ianus, who was anciently regarded by the Italians as the Sun-God. But how Diana came to be separated from her husband in the enumeration of the Twelve Consentian Deities, and how the Greeks and Romans should have established a connection between Artemis or Diana, and Hecate or Proserpina, goddesses of the nether world, so as to make up the Diva Triformis, (Tria virginis ora Dianae,) worshipped as Luna in heaven, as Diana upon earth, and as Proserpina in the realms below, are questions which would lead to very complicated and perplexing investigations. Her statues were frequently erected at a point from which three roads or streets diverged, and hence she is styled Trivia. There was a sacrifice to Diana on the Aventine, on 31st March, (Prid. Kal. Apr.) but her chief festival was on the 13th August (Id. Sextil.) There was a celebrated shrine of Diana on the Lacus Nemorensis near Aricia, where a festival called the Nemoralia was celebrated on the 13th August (Id. Sextil.) The priest in this temple was always a fugitive slave, who had gained his office by murdering his predecessor, and hence went armed that he might be prepared to encounter a new aspirant.

7. VENUS, identified with the TURAN of the Etruscans, and the 'A@godírn of the Greeks, was the Goddess of Love and Beauty. She was worshipped in the Forum under the title of Cloacina, or Cluacina, i.e. The Purifier, and in the Circus Maximus as Venus Murtea, an epithet derived probably from the myrtle, her favourite plant. The two festivals named Vinalia, the first celebrated on 23d April, (IX. Kal. Mai.) and the second, the Vinalia Rustica, on 19th August, (XIV. Kal. Septr.) were sacred to Iovis and Venus.

8. CERES, identified with the Greek Anμýτng, i.c. Mother-Earth, was the Goddess of Corn and Agriculture. Her worship, as we are assured by Cicero, (Pro Balb. 24.) was derived from Greece, and conducted by Grecian priestesses.

The festival of Ceres, the Cerealia, commenced on the 12th of April (Prid. Id. Apr.) and lasted for several days. There were also rustic festivals in honour of this goddess, the Paganalia and the Feriae Sementivae in seed-time, and the Ambarvalia before harvest. The latter was so called because the victim was led thrice round the fields before it was sacrificed. (See Virg. G. I. 338. Tibull. II. i. 1.)

9. MARS S. MAVORS 8. MAMERS S. MARSPITER, the God of War, was the Agns of the Greeks, and with him was associated a female goddess, BELLONA, but the name of his wife was NERIA or NERIENE. As the god who strode with warlike step to the battle-field, he was worshipped under the epithet Gradivus ; and as the protector of the country, he was styled Mars Silvanus. Quirinus, i.e. Spear-Bearer or Warrior, was also an epithet of Mars, but was employed more frequently as the appropriate appellation of deified Romulus. Horse races in honour of Mars, called Equiria, took place on the 27th February (III. Kal. Mart.) and on the 14th March, (Prid. Id. Mart.) and chariot races on 15th October, (Id. Octobr.) on which occasion a horse, called Equus October, was sacrificed to the god in the Campus Martius. The festival of Bellona was on the 4th of June (Prid. Non. Iun.)

10. NEPTUNUS, the Lord of the Sea, whose name appears as NETHUNS on Etruscan monuments, was identified with the Greek Hored. There was also a PORTUNUS, the God of Harbours. The festival of Neptunus, the Neptunalia, was celebrated on the 23d July (X. Kal. Sextil.)

11. VULCANUS S. MULCIBER, the God of Fire, the SETHLANS of the Etruscans, was identified with the "HOTOS of the Greeks, the artificer in metals, the smith who forged the armour of the gods and the thunderbolts of Zeus. The festival of Vulcanus, the Vulcanalia, was celebrated on the 23d August (X. Kal. Septembr.)

12. MECURIUS, the God of Traffic and of Gain, the TURMS of the Etruscans, whose name is manifestly derived from Merx, was identified with the 'Egus of the Greeks. The festival of Mercurius was celebrated on the 15th May, (Id. Mai.) that being the day on which this temple was dedicated in B.C. 498 (Liv. II. 21.)

Varro, at the commencement of his treatise on Agriculture, invokes to his assistance Twelve Consentian Deities, (some of whom are different from the twelve named above,) those powers, namely-Qui maxime agricolarum duces sunt. These he arranges in pairs: 1. Iovis et Tellus. 2. Sol et Luna. 3. Ceres et Liber. 4. Robigus et Flora. 5. Minerva et Venus. 6. Lympha et

Bonus Eventus.

1. Iovis et TELLUS, or Heaven and Earth. Tellus, or Terra Mater, was a personification of the productive powers of the earth, and as such, identical with Ceres. As the source of wealth, she was styled Ops, and as the giver of all good things, Bona Dea. Fatua is said to have been another appellation of the same goddess, the name clearly indicating a prophetic or oracular divinity. Maius and Maia, from whom the month of May derived its name, seem to have been a pair of equivalent deities, worshipped at Tusculum, and probably in the other states of ancient Latium. The festival of Ops, the Opalia, was cele brated on 19th December; (XIV. Kal. Ian.;) the rites of the Bona Dea were performed on the 1st May (Kal. Mai.) by women only, every male creature being scrupulously excluded.

2. SOL et LUNA. These, according to the popular belief, were regarded as identical with Apolle and Diana.