when their country was overflowed, and were allowed a territory by the race of the Cymry: these had no privilege nor claim in the Isle of Britain, any more than a settlement in the land, afforded them under limitations; and these could not be entitled to the rights of natives until the ninth generation.

Three usurping tribes came into the Isle of Britain, and never departed out of it. The first of these was that of the Coraniaid, who came from the land of the Pwyl (or Poland, according to the etymology of the word, and according to the application of it to denote that country, by the modern Welsh): the second was the Gwyddelian Fichti, who came into Alban, over the sea of Llychlyn, or Lochlyn: the third was that of the Saxons. It is further stated in this Triad, that the territory which the Coraniaid occupied was on the banks of the Humber, and on the shores of the German Ocean; and the Gwyddelian Fichti are in Alban, on the shore of the sea of Lochlyn. The Coraniaid, on the coming over of the Saxons, united with them, and, incorporating themselves with that people, they deprived the Loegrians of their government, by wrong and oppression; and then they deprived the race of the Cymry of the monarchial crown. All the Loegrians became one people with the Saxons; those only excepted who are found in Cornwall, and in the Comot of Carnoban, in Deira and Bernicia. It is further added, that the nation of the Cymry kept their country and their language, although they lost the sovereignty of the Isle of Britain; owing to the treachery of the protected. and the devastation of the three oppressive tribes. From another Triad it appears, that until the time of Prydyn, the son of Aedd, there were no settled laws for the maintenance of justice, and the defence of person and property; nor any regular mode of government. The coming over of the three friendly tribes, Mr. Hughes (Hora Britannica) fixes at about 400 years, B. C.; for, by the time of Cæsar, not only Kent and Sussex, but Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, were occupied by their descendants, and bore their names.'

There is great reason to suppose that the Phoenicians not only traded as we have seen to Britain, for tin, &c. but established a colony here at a remote period: they are probably included in some of the tribes already detailed. Certain it is that the date of the voyage of Hamilco, who was sent by the senate of Carthage, about the time of Darius Nothus, to discover the western shores and parts of Europe, agrees almost precisely with the date of the coming over of the friendly tribes above alluded to. Dr. Vincent, in his Treatise on the Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, says that tin is mentioned as an import into Africa, Arabia, Scindi, and the coast of Malabar. It has continued an article of commerce brought out of Britain in all ages; conveyed to all the countrie: in the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, and carried into the eastern ocean from the origin of commerce. Tin,' he continues, is enumerated by Arrian as exported to India, and if we find the produce of Britain conveyed to

Malabar in the earliest period that history can reach, we find the spices of Malabar in Britain in an age when the course of the commerce with India was probably as little known as the existence of America: the venerable Bede, who died in the year 735, was possessed of pepper, cinnamon, and frankincense. Did no one ever ask the question how, in that age, these luxuries had been conveyed to Britain, or were treasured in a cell at Wearmouth?"

The Phoenicians, in fact, traded to all parts of the known world, perhaps from the time of Abraham. They enriched themselves by exchanging their manufactures, and the productions of the East, for the silver of Spain and the tin of Britain. Spain was, to them, what America has been to us; but Britain was so invaluable to their trade that they uniformly endeavoured to throw a veil of mystery over its situation and its produce.' At every station they visited on the Mediterranean these enterprising navigators established colonics: Strabo mentions their possessing not less than 300 on the shores of that sea. It cannot therefore be unreasonable to infer that they established similar settlements in more distant countries, and particularly in Britain, where, for such a length of time, they possessed the monopoly of an article which enriched them, and was so much required by other nations.'

When Cæsar arrived in Britain he describes the sea-coast as inhabited by rovers and pirates, the interior, to which he did not penetrate, by the aborigines of the island, whose numbers he heard of as prodigious; and their buildings numerous, and like those of Gaul. Their cattle also were abundant, but they sowed little corn, and used iron rings for money. Their diet was simple and parsimonious; chiefly milk, butter, and cheese, and perhaps oatmeal. At their feasts they indulged themselves with animal food, cerevisia, or malt liquor, cyder, and metheglin. They had few fixed meals, but ate more or less frequently, according to their convenience; and when they became rather more polished, two meals a day formed their seasons of repast. When Cæsar met them in battle, their appearance was fierce, and their courage undaunted. They painted, or rather tattoed their bodies with woad, partly as a defence against the weather, and partly to terrify their enemies. Dion Cassius says, when pursued by an enemy too powerful, they betook themselves to boggy places, where they were able to endure all the inconvenience of such a miserable situation for whole days and nights, without any other sustenance than a morsel no bigger than a bean. At this period their hills were covered with deer, so that their venison feasts were frequent, rewarding them for the toil of hunting: wolves and bears also abounded in the island. Their towns consisted of huts, with one rather of the superior kind for the chieftain. Their fortresses were rather natural than artificial defences; but we have still the traces of their encampments, which antiquaries distinguish from those of the Romans. Some of our largest towns are upon the site of those built by the ancient Britons Their garments

were coarse woollen, and their covering by day was their only bedding at night. Their distinguished chiefs wore a gold torch, or massy chain, appended to a collar. Queen Boadicea is described by the Roman historian as adorned with such a princely ornament; while her yellow hair fell down her back over her long flowing robe. Cæsar found them prone to civil wars and disputes: his pretext for his second invasion we know was grounded on the encroachment made by Cassivelaunus, prince of the Catti, and some other tribes, on the neighbouring territory of the Trinobantes, whose prince, Immanuentius, had been slain by that chieftain. He also states that ten or twelve of them have their wives in common; particularly brothers with brothers, and parents with their children. The children who were the fruit of such unlawful embraces, were considered as pertaining to those men who married the mothers when virgins.' They imported brass, it seems from the same writer, and exhibited their greatest mechanical skill in the structure of their war-chariots, to which they fastened those celebrated scythes and hooks which evince a considerable knowledge of the art of working iron. The chief mechanics of Britain,' say one of the Triads, were Corvinôr, the bard of Ceri Hir Lyngwyn, who first made a ship, sail, and helm, for the Cymry; Morddal Gwr Gweilgi, mason to Ceraint ap Greidiawl, who first taught the Britons to work with stone and mortar, about the time that the emperor Alexander was subduing the world; Coel, son of Cyllin, and grandson of Caradoc, the son of Brán (or Caractacus), who first made a mill turned by a wheel: these three were bards.' Another speaks of barley and wheat as introduced by foreigners; and first of all successfully cultivated, the former in Pembrokeshire, and the latter in Monmouthshire. Rye, at the same time, was introduced into Carnarvonshire. In their books also we read of three celebrated astronomers of the Isle of Britain, Idris the chieftain, and Gwydion the son of Don, and Gwyn the son of Nudd; and so great was their knowledge of the stars, and their influences, that they could prognosticate whatever it was desirable to

know."

6

Ancient commentators on the Itinerary of Richard of Cirencester attempt to distinguish some ancient British ways across the island from the roads constructed by the Romans, and it is considered that both the Skinner-street and the Watling-street of the latter were adopted and improved from the former. The Triads tell us that the nation of the Cymry claimed the supreme monarchy of the Isle of Britain: but of this prerogative they are said to have been deprived by the Loegrians, or the people of the central region, now called England. In a time of common danger the chieftains, who were the reguli, or lords of distinct territories, formed a confederacy, and elected some eminent chieftain of an illustrious family to be their pendragon, or stadtholder, to lead them to battle. Such were Cassivelaunus, Caractacus, Vortigern, and Arthur. These works also mention laws enacted by the general suffrage of what were afterwards called uchelwyr, or noblemen; and the gwyr da, men

of small estate, or such as we would call freeholders; the common people, or the plebeians, being in a state of villenage, or slavery to the great men. Nothing can be more satisfactory to the patriotic antiquarian than the following passage on the genius of their constitution. There is one supreme authority, in union with the arbitration or voice of the country and community, agreeable to the distribution of Prydain, the son of Aedd the Great. To the nation of the Cymry does the supreme authority pertain, according to the voice of the country and the nation, because of natural right and equity; and subject to this constitution ought the sovereignty to be regulated in every territory of Britain; and every sovereignty is subject to the voice of the country: on that ground is the proverb founded, The country is greater than its lord.' Another Triad says, The three pillars of the commonweal of the Isle of Britain; the voice (or decision) of the country, the sovereignty, and the law, according to the distribution of Prydain, the son of Aedd the Great.' They also celebrate the laws of Dunwal Moelmad, which were extant in the time of Gildas (that is, Gildas Nennius), were translated by him into Latin; as were also those of Marcia, the wife of Cyhylin, the third from Dyvnwal; and communicated to Alfred the Great by Aser. Their language, it is well known, had a close affinity with that still spoken in Wales. Their druidical magistracy and priesthood are sufficiently important to claim our attention in a separate article. See DRUIDS.

Cornwall and Devonshire.

Dorsetshire.

Modern Counties.

Berkshire.

Kent.

Middlesex and Essex,

Northumberland.

Durovernum vel Cantiopolis-Caer Gaint, or
Canterbury.

Camulodunum-Colchester, or Maldon.
Verolamium-St. Alban's.

Venta-(Belgarum), Caer Wynt, Winchester.
Isca-(Damnoniorum), Caer Esk, Exeter.
Isca-(Silurum), Caerleon, Monmouthshire.
Venta-(Silurum), Caerwent.
Glevum-Caer Gloyw, Gloucester.
Brannogenium--Caer Wrangon, Worcester.
Uriconium-Wroxeter, in Shropshire.
Deva-Caerleon Gawr, Chester.
Corinium-Caer Ceri, or Cirencester.
Durnomagus-Caster, near Peterborough.
Cataracton-or Catterick, Yorkshire.
Victoria-Perth.

Theodosia-Caer Alcluyd, or Dunbritton.
Isurium-Aldborough, Yorkshire
Eboracum-Caer Evroc, or York.
Coccium-Blackrode.
Luguballium-Caerlisle.

Cambodunum-Slack, Lancashire.

Segontium-Caer Segont, near Caernarvon.
Conovium-Caer Hen, near Conway.
Mediolanum-Meivod, Montgomeryshire.
Lindum-Caer Luyt Coed, or Lincoln.
Raga-Caer Leir, or Leircester.
Rutupis-Richborough.

Sorbiodunum-Caer Sallog, or Salisbury.
Aquæ Solis-Caer Baddon, or Bath.
Avalonia-Wells, or Glastonbury.
Muridunum-Caerfurdhin, or Caermartnen.
Mcuapia-Mynyw, St. David's.

To which we may add :

Regentium-Chichester.
Calleva-Silchester.
Gobanium-Abergavenny.
Etocetum-Wall, near Litchfield.
Mancunium-Manchester.

Rerigonium, or Rigodunum.-Ribchester.

Lucophibia, or Candida Casa-Whithern, in
Galloway.
Vanduarium-Renfrew, or Paisley.
Devana-Old Aberdeen.

We now come to treat

II. Of Britain as a Roman province. Julius Cæsar having subdued most of the nations of Gaul, on the opposite side of the channel, began, about B. C. 56, to think of extending his conquests by the reduction of Britain. The motive for this expedition, ascribed to him by Suetonius, was a desire of enriching himself by the British pearls, which were then much esteemed. The pretence, however, to justify his invasion, was, that the Britons had sent assistance to the Gauls during his wars with them. His first expedition was undertaken at the close of the summer (he landed August 26th), and he now therefore only purposed to view the island, and learn something of the manners and customs of the natives; after which, on his return, he could more easily ensure a permanent conquest. Having marched all his forces into the country of the Morini (Picardy), in Gaul, from whence was the shortest passage into Britain; he ordered the vessels that lay in the neighbouring ports, and a fleet which he had built the year before, to attend him. The Britons, alarmed at his preparations, sent ambassadors with offers of submission; but Cæsar, though he received them with great kindness, did not abandon his intended scheme. He only waited till the return of C. Volusenus, whom he had sent out with a single galley to make discoveries on the coast. His force consisted of two legions embarked on board eighty transports; and he appointed eighteen more, which lay wind-bound about eight miles off, to convey over the cavalry; but these last orders were too slowly executed, which occasioned some difficulty in his landing. The British chiefs at this time, although they had endeavoured to conciliate, were far from prepared to submit to him. As soon as they perceived Cæsar's fleet approaching, a number of cavalry and chariots were despatched to oppose his landing, while a considerable body of infantry hastened after. The Romans were chiefly, how

however, was not sufficient to keep up the spirits of his countrymen. On the contrary, they deposed him and chose Mandubratius, whose father had been murdered by Cassibelan when he usurped the kingdom. The young prince had fled to Casar, who gave him protection: and the Trinobantes now offered to submit to the conqueror, provided he would give them Mandubratius for their king. Cæsar readily complied with their request, upon their sending him forty hostages and the submission of the Trinobantes was soon followed by that of other states and tribes. Cæsar next marched to Verulamium, Cassibelan's capital, of which he still kept possession; but though the place was strongly fortified the Britons soon fled. Many were taken and many more cut in pieces. After this loss, Cassibelan, as his last resource, drew into confederacy with him four kings (as Cæsar styles them), or rather chiefs of the Cantii. Their names were Cingetorix, Corvilius, Taximagulus and Segonax. These, having raised what forces they could, attacked the camp where the ships were laid up but the Romans, having made a sally, repulsed them with great slaughter, after which Cassibelan submitted. A peace was concluded on these terms, that the Britons should pay an annual tribute to the Romans, that Cassibelan should leave Mandubratius in peaceable possession of his dominions, and that he should deliver a certain number of hostages. Cæsar then set sail with his whole fleet from Britain, to which he never returned. Such is Cæsar's own account of his two expeditions into Britain; but Dio Cassius tells us, that the Britons utterly defeated the Roman infantry, though they were at last put in disorder by their cavalry. Horace and Tibullus, in many parts of their works, speak of the Britons as a people not yet conquered. Tacitus says, that Cæsar rather showed the Romans the way to Britain, than put them in possession of it; and Lucan tells us plainly that Cæsar turned his back to the Britons and fled. This, however, considering the consummate military genius of Cæsar, is by no means probable. That he left Britain during winter, was probably to prevent insurrections among the Gauls; and his ambition would certainly be more gratified by being emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain.

The departure of Julius Cæsar, which happened about A. A. C. 53, left the Britons without any fear of a foreign enemy. We are not, there fore, to imagine, that they would regard their promises of paying tribute; nor was it probably de nanded for many years afterwards. Augustus had twice a design of invading Britain, and forcing the inhabitants to pay the tribute promised to Julius Cæsar. Both times, however, he was prevented by revolts in different provinces, so that the Britons still continued to enjoy their liberty. They, however, courted the favor of the Romans by pretended submissions; but, in the reign of Claudius, the Romans set about reducing them to subjection in earnest. The occasion of this war is related by Dio Cassius as follows: Cunobelinus, the third in succession from Cassibelan, being dead, his two sons, Togodumnus and Caractacus succeeded to the throne;

but whether they reigned jointly or separately is not known. In their reign one Bericus, being exiled for sedition, fled with some of his partisans to Rome, and persuaded Claudius to make war on his countrymen. The Britons, on the other hand, resented the behaviour of Claudius in receiving these vagabonds, and therefore prohibited all intercourse with the Romans. A much smaller offence than this would have been sufficient to provoke that haughty nation to declare war. An army was therefore immediately ordered to Britain, under the command of Plautius, prætor in Gaul. The soldiers at first refused to embark, from a superstitious notion, that they were going to be sent beyond the compass of the world; and this mutiny being reported to the Britons, they did not make the necessary preparations for their own defence. But the Roman soldiers were soon brought to a sense of their duty; and set out from three different ports, in order to land in three different places of Britain at once. Being driven back by contrary winds, their fears began to return; they resumed their courage, however, on the appearance of a meteor shooting from the east, which they imagined was sent from heaven to direct their course. They landed without opposition; and the Britons, not having drawn together a sufficient army, kept in small bodies behind their marshes, and in woods, in order to protract the war till winter: which they imagined Plautius would, like Cæsar, spend in Gaul. The Roman general marched first in quest of the two kings Togodumnus and Caractacus; both of whom he found, and defeated one after another. He then reduced part of the Dobuni, at that time subject to the Catticuchlani; and, leaving a garrison to keep them in awe, he advanced to a river where the Britons lay carelessly encamped, supposing that the Romans could not pass it without a bridge. But the Germans in the Roman army had been accustomed to swim across the strongest currents in their heavy armour. They therefore passed the river first; and having fallen only upon the enemy's horses which drew their chariots, these formidable machines were rendered useless; and the Britons were put to flight as soon as another part of the forces passed the river. They, however, engaged the Romans next day with great bravery. Victory continued long doubtful; but at length the Romans prevailed. This battle is thought to have been fought on the banks of the Severn. From thence the Britons fled to the mouth of the Thames. They were closely pursued, but the Romans, being unacquainted with the flats and shallows of the river, were often in great danger. Their German allies, however, crossed by swimming as before, and the rest by a bridge farther up the river; so that the Britons were in a short time surrounded on all sides, and great numbers cut in pieces. Many of the Romans also, pursuing the fugitives with too great eagerness, were lost in the marshes.-In one of these battles Togodumnus was killed; but the Britons were so far from being disheartened, that they showed more eagerness than ever, in order to revenge his death. Plautius, therefore, did not think proper to penetrate farther into the country, but conten