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19. Bursting at the point (apice dehiscens.) 20. Free (libera), that is not attached to another anther.

21. Connate (connata), when several grow together, forming a tube.

22. Erect (erecta), standing with its base straight on the point of the filament.

23. Incumbent (incumbens), that is perpendicularly, or even obliquely, attached to the ǹla

ment.

24. Lateral (lateralis), that is attached, by its side, to the point of the filament.

25. Moveable (versatilis), when Nos. 23 and 24 are so slightly attached to the filament that the least motion agitates the anther.

26. Adnate (adnata), when the anther is closely attached to both sides of the point of the fila

ment.

27. Sitting (sessilis), that has no filament. 238. The pollen is a powder, that appears in the form of the finest dust. In the microscope its figure is various, being hollow, and filled with a fertilisi..g moisture. 239. The Pistillum is the organ which occupies the centre of the flower, and which finally terminates the development of the inflorescence, just as a bud terminates the progress of the foliage. Hence it has been philosophically considered as a bud in a particular state. It consists of three parts; the ovarium, the style, and the stigma.

240. The Ovarium is the undermost part of the pistillum, and is the rudiment of the future fruit. The number of ovaria is very various; they are reckoned from six to eight, after which they are said to be several or many ovaria. The figure is also very different. The principal kinds are:

1. Sitting (sessile), that has no foot-stalk. 2. Pedicelled (pedicellatum), furnished with a foot-stalk.

3. Superior (superum), when the germen is encircled by the calyx, or, when this is wanting, by the other parts of the flower.

4. Inferior (inferum), when the ovary is situated under the calyx, or, when this is want ing, under the corolla.

241. The style (stylus), is seated upon the germen, and resembles a small column or stalk. The kinds of it are the following: :

1. Hair-like (capillaris), that is very slender, and of equal thickness.

2. Bristle-like (setaceous), as slender as the former, but somewhat thicker at the base.

3. Thread-like (filiformis), which is long and round.

4. Awl-shaped (subulatus), thick below, above sharp pointed.

5. Gross (crassus), that is very thick and

short.

6. Club-shaped (clavatus), thicker above than

below.

7. Two, three, four, &c. multifid (bi-tri-quadri-&c., multifidus), cleft in a determined

manner.

8. Dichotomous (dichotomus), divided into two parts, which are again divided at the points. 9. Terminal (terminalis), which stands on the top of the germen.

10. Lateral (lateralis), attached to the inside of the germen.

11. Erect (rectus), which stands straight up. 12. Declined (declinatus), that inclines towards the side.

13. Abiding (persistens), that does not fall off. 14. Withering (marcescens), that withers and afterwards falls off.

15. Deciduous (deciduus), that falls off immediately after impregnation.

The number of the styles must likewise be accurately counted; for there is often more than one style to one germen, and this must be particularly observed. The length of the style, whether longer or shorter than the stamina, is also to be mentioned.

242. The stigma means the top of the style. The kinds of it are as follows:

1. Pointed (acutum), when it has a sharp

point.

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club.

5. Spherical (globosum), forming a perfectly round globe.

6. Capitate (capitatum), a hemisphere, the under side flat.

7. Emarginated (emarginatum), when the lastmentioned kind has a notch in it.

8. Peltated (peltatum), that is formed like a shield.

9. Uncinated (uncinatum), hooked at the point. 10. Angular (angulosum), when it is furnished with close and deep furrows, which occasion projecting angles.

11. Three-lobed (trilobum), which consists of three round bodies, somewhat pressed flat.

12. Dentated (dentatum), when it is set with fine teeth.

13. Cruciform (cruciforme), when it is divided into four parts, of which two are always opposite to each other.

14. Pencil-like (pencilliforme), consisting of a number of short, thick, close, fleshy fibres, in form of a pencil.

15. Hollow (concavum), when it is of a globular or longish form, but quite hollow, as in the

violet.

16. Petal-like (petaloïdeum), when it has the appearance of a petal; as in Iris.

17. Two, three, and multifid (bi, tri, &c. multifidum).

18. Bent-back (revolutum), when the points of a bifid or multifid stigma are rolled back outwards. 19. Bent in (convolutum), when the points of a divided stigma are rolled inwards.

20. Spiral (spirale), when a multifid stigma is rolled up like the spring of a watch.

21. Plumose (plumosum), when the stigma is set with fine hairs on both sides, so as to have the appearance of a feather; as in the grasses. 22. Hairy (pubescens), that is set with short white hairs.

23. Lateral (laterale), which is situated on the side of the stylus or of the german.

24. Sitting (sessile,, which, when there is no style, rests on the germen.

The stigma, properly speaking, consists of a number of inhaling tubercles, which are not always visible without a magnifier. In the Mirabilis Jalapa they are to be seen most distinctly.

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2. + Plurilocular, or
compound.

243. The discus is a fleshy ring, surrounding the pistillum at its base; and is one of the various § Indehiscent. things which Linnæus indiscriminately named 15. Nuculanium. nectary. It generally exists in the form of a ring, 16. Bacca. or annulus, into which the stamens are inserted, 17. Hesperidium. or not, as the case may be. Occasionally it is 18. Carcerulus. so much enlarged as to enclose the pistillum in 19. Sterigmum. part, as in Pæonia Moutan, or entirely, as in Nelumbium, when it constitutes the principal part of the fruit.

Dehiscent. 25. Siliqua 26. Silicula.

244. The fruit is the perfection of vegetation. It is by this part that all plants are perpetuated; 27. Pyxidium. and with this, in many plants, existence termi- 28. Capsula. nates. In common language, the term is ap29. Regmatus. plied to such as are fleshy and eatable; but, in scientific language, it signifies the fecundated ovarium in a ripe state; and, in a more extended sense, the aggregation of several ripe ovaria, even belonging to different flowers.

245. The essential parts of a fruit are the pericarp and the seed.

246. The pericarp is the covering of the seed, and the most external part of the fruit. It is terminated at the one end by the vestiges of the style, and at the other by the receptacle or peduncle. It consists of three parts: 1. the epicarp, which is the skin or outer coat; 2. the sarcocarp, which constitutes the flesh in fleshy fruits, and is the substance immediately covered by the epicarp; 3. the endocarp, which is the inner lining of the fruit, and the same as Gartner has called putamen.

247. The pericarp is always present in the ovarium, but sometimes is obliterated in the fruit. It is sometimes internally divided by partitions, which are called dissepiments, and which bear on some part of their surface, generally at the inner angle, a fleshy or spongy mass, which is called the placenta, and on which the seeds are placed.

248. The pericarp varies in the mode of dehiscence, in degree of combination, in texture, and in relation to the perianthium. From variations in these modifications, fruits may be divided into five classes, and forty genera, disposed in the following manner :

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3. + Gynobasic. 31. Microbasis. 32. Sarcobasis.

4. + Multiplex.
33. Acinos.

34. Etario.
35. Amalthea.
36. Asimina.

5.

Aggregate.

37. Sorosus.
38. Strobilus.
39. Ananassa.

+ Plurilocular, or
compound.

§ Indehiscent.
20. Polyachenium.
21. Pomum.
22. Pepo.

23. Acrosarcum.

24. Balausta.

§ Dehiscent. 30. Diplostegia.

249. The foregoing are distinguished among themselves by the following additional charac

ters:

1. Utriculus. Pericarp bladdery monosper mous, not adhering to the seed. Eleusine.

2. Achenium. Pericarp coriaceous, monospermous, or oligospermous, not adhering to the seed. Rosa. Thecidium of Mirbel is a variety.

3. Cariopsis. Pericarp usually thin, monospermous, always adhering closely to the seed and inseparable from it. Grasses. Also called Cerio.

4. Cataclesium. Pericarp coriaceous, monospermous, covered by the calyx, which does not adhere to it, but which is much enlarged. Salsola. To this must be referred Sacellus and Sphalerocarpium.

5. Scleranthum. Pericarp thin, monospermous, covered by the indurated base of the calyx or perianthium. Mirabilis. Also called Dycle

sium.

6. Samara. Pericarp coriaceous, oligospermous, with a long wing at its back. Acer. This fruit is either compound or simple, but always unilocular in its divisions.

7. Glans. Pericarp coriaceous, mono-dispermous, covered at the base by an indurated involucre, which takes the name of cup. Quercus, Laurus. Also called Calybio.

8. Nur. Pericarp woody, mono-dispermous, covered at the base by a foliaceous involucre. Peculiar to Corylus. The term is applied by many authors to nearly all the hard fruits, which

have only one or two seeds. Called also Nucula by Desvaux; but that term is employed by some botanists for the Achenium.

9. Drupa. Sarcocarp fleshy; endocarp bony and separable, mono-dispermous. Amygdalus. From this Tryma is not distinguishable.

10. Lomentum. Pericarp polyspermous, contracted at the interval between each seed, and separating there into joints. A form of the Legumen. Hedysarum.

11. Stephanæum. Pericarp inseparable from the calyx, and of variable consistence, monospermous. Compositæ. Also called Cypsela.

12. Arcesthida. Spherical monospermous, formed by the cohesion of several fleshy scales. Juniperus.

13. Legumen Polyspermous, two-valved, one-celled. Vicia.

14. Folliculus. Polyspermous, one-valved, often spuriously two-celled. Paonia.

15. Nuculanium. Sarcocarp fleshy, endocarp bony, often confluent." Verbenaceæ. Differs from drupa in being compound. Also called Pyrena and Nucula.

16. Bacca. Pericarp pulpy, the cells obliterated, the seeds nidulant in the pulp, and having no distinct mode of connexion with the pericarp when ripe. Jasminum. This term is often applied very vaguely.

17. Hesperidium. Sarcocarp coriaceous, endocarp and placentas fleshy or pulpy, seeds nidulant, cells distinct. Citrus. Also called Aurantium.

18. Carcerulus. Pericarp dry, cells not more than five, within confluent or distinct. Tilia.

19. Sterigmum. Pericarp dry, cells very numerous, more than five, occasionally dehiscent slightly. This is hardly different from the last. Malva.

20. Polyachenium. Pericarp and calyx inseparable, dry, cells opposite, separating from the top of the common axis. Umbelliferæ. Called Carpodelium when the cells exceed two, and the pericarp is slightly fleshy; as in Aralia.

21. Pomum. Pericarp and calyx inseparable, forming a fleshy mass, endocarp variable in texture, never pulpy. Pyrus.

22. Pepo. Pericarp and calyx inseparable, fleshy, endocarp pulpy, seeds parietal, when ripe nidulant in pulp. Cucumis. Also named Peponida.

23. Acrosarcum. The same as bacca, but the calyx adheres to the pericarpium. An inferior berry. Ribes.

24. Balausta. Pericarp coriaceous, enclosing a number of irregular cells, containing seeds with a pulpy testa. Punica. An inferior Hesperidium.

25. Siliqua. Pericarp linear, polyspermous, two-valved, valves separating from the face of the dissepiment. Brassica.

26. Silicula. Pericarp round or oblong, oligospermous, two-valved, valves separating from the face of the dissepiment. Draba.

27. Pyridium. Pericarp polyspermous, separating into two halves by a circular horizontal separation, so that the valves resemble two hemispheres. Anagallis. The lower valve is caled amphora, the upper operculum.

28. Capsula. Pericarp polyspermous, separating vertically into valves. Silene.

29. Regmatus. Pericarp separating with elasticity into mono or dispermous cells (cocci), which are pendulous from the apex of a common axis, and are more or less dehiscent. Euphorbia. Scarcely distinct from polyachenium. Also called Cremocarpium.

30. Diplostegia. Pericarp polyspermous, variable in consistence, inseparable from the calyx, dehiscing in various manners. May be considered an inferior capsule. Hydrangea.

31. Microbasis. Pericarpia several, monospermous, indehiscent, dry, attached by the base to a common style, and seated on a receptacle called the gynobase. Labiatæ. The naked seeds of Linnæus.

32. Sarcobasis. A mere variety of the last, from which it scarcely differs, except in having fleshy pericarpia upon an enlarged fleshy gynobase. Ochna.

33. Acinus. Drupes, very small and numerous, arranged on an elongated receptacle, and when becoming confluent when ripe, having a membraneous covering. Fragaria. This is the Syncarpa of Richard, but not of others. Polysecus seems to be not distinguishable from this.

34. Etario. Pericarpia several, formed from distinct ovaries, and arranged around an imaginary centre, generally polyspermous and dehiscent. Sempervivum. This is also the Plopocarpium of Desvaux.

36. Amalthea. Composed of several achenia, enclosed within the cavity of a coriaceous calyx. Rosa. Also called Cynarrhodon.

37. Asimina. Ovaries numerous, bacciform, one-celled, produced from a single flower, and united in a solid fleshy fruit. Anona. Very near the acinus, from which it differs chiefly in size, and in having its outer coat coriaceous, not membranous.

38. Sorosus. Pericarpia very numerous, dry, generally achenia, arranged upon a fleshy receptacle, which is urceolate, and enclosed at its mouth. Ficus. Also called Syconus.

39. Strobilus. Pericarpia many, indehiscent, unilocular, monospermous, each enclosed in an indurated scale. Scales imbricated, forming by their cohesion a hard irregular cone. Pinus. Of this Galbalus is a mere variety.

40. Ananassa. Pericarpia many, indehiscent, polyspermous, cohering with the calyx, and seated each in the axilla of a fleshy scale, which coheres with them, and in maturity forms a solid fleshy mass. Bromelia.

250. The SEED is that part of the fruit which is enclosed in the pericarp, and which contains the rudiments of the future plant. It consists of three distinct parts, the testa, the albumen, and the embryo.

251. The testa is the external covering or coat of the seed. Some writers distinguish it into three parts; calling the external skin the testa, the intermediate substance the sarcodermis, and the interior pellicle the endopleura.

252. The scar upon the testa, which indicates the point by which the seed was attached to the placenta, is called the hilum. On this space two distinct points are observable, viz. the omphalo

dium, a protuberant point, situated for the most part in the middle of the hilum, and indicating the point by which the nourishing vessels have passed; and the micropyle or foramen, which is a point situated by the side of the umbilicus, and is supposed by some authors to mark the spot by which the fecundating vessels have terminated; but is declared by Mr. Brown to indicate a perforation existing in the ovulum, through which a fecundating aura is communicated to the embryo, and which never has any vascular connexion with the pericarpium.

253. Chalaza is a point marked upon the endopleura, and indicates the place where the umbilical cord pierces it. This point is ordinarily under the hilum; sometimes it is at a distance from it, in which case it is connected with the hilum by a bundle of vessels called the raphe. 254. Strophiolæ are callous or fungous lumps, generally found about the hilum of certain seeds; sometimes they are otherwise stationed.

255. The kernel is the name given to all the parts of the seed included under the testa.

256. The albumen is that part of the kernel which surrounds the embryo, which never adheres to it, which possesses no vascular organisation, and which is of various degrees of texture, being either fleshy, or corneous, or ligneous, or feculent, or granular, &c.

257. The embryo is that part of the kernel which exists in all fecundated seeds, and which is destined to reproduce the plant which bore it. It is divided into three parts, viz. the radicle, the plumula, and the cotyledons.

258. The radicle is that part of the embryo which becomes the root, and which, in the ripe seed, is always directed away from the chalaza.

.259. The plumula is the part which is destined to be the stem, and which is situated at the base of the cotyledons.

260. The cotyledons are the organs which adhere to the plumula, and which become the first leaves of the plant. Their purpose is to supply nourishment to the young plant, until it shall be in a condition to elaborate food for itself.

261. The merits and objects of the artificial and natural systems of botany having been already discussed, it now only remains to explain the peculiar details of each, for which purpose, that of Linnæus, as it was left by him and that of Jussieu, as at present received, will suffice.

LINNEAN SYSTEM

262. The classes of this system depend either upon the number, proportion, or insertion, of the stamens or male organs, as explained in the following table:

TABLE OF THE CLASSES.

Either PUBLICLY, i. e. have visible flowers:

MONOCLINIA, males and females in the same bed: i. e. The flowers are all hermaphrodite :
DIFFINITAS, the males or stamina unconnected with each other:

PLANTS celebrate their nuptials.

In these the stamina are either
Among the Monoclinia, there is either

Plants, which have visible flowers are either.

Indifferentissima, i. e. the males have no fixed proportion as to length:

1. MONANDRIA, i. e. one male or stamen in a hermaphrodite flower.

2. DIANDRIA,

3. TRIANDRIA,

4. TETRANDRIA,
5. PENTANDRIA,
6. HEXANDRIA,
7. HEPTANDRIA,

8. OCTANDRIA,
9. ENNEANDRIA,

10. DECANDRIA,
11. DODECANDRIA,

12. ICOSANDRIA,

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two males or stamina.

three males.

four males.

five males.

six males.

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seven males.

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eight males.

nine males.

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ten males.

twelve males.

twenty, or more males inserted into the calyx. 13. POLYANDRIA, all above twenty males inserted into the receptacle. Or Subordinata, two of the males are uniformly shorter than the rest.

14. DIDYNAMIA, four males, two long and two short.

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15. TETRADYNAMIA, six males, four long and two short.

Or AFFINITAS, the stamina either connected to each other, or to the pistillum.

16. MONADELPHIA, the stamina united into one body by the filaments.

17. DIADELPHIA, the stamina united into two bodies by the filaments.
18. POLYADELPHIA, the stamina united into three or more bodies by the filaments.
19. SYNGENESIA, the stamina united into a cylindrical form by the antheræ.
20. GYNANDRIA, the stamina inserted into the pistillum.

Or DICLINIA, males and females in separate beds: i. e. plants that have stamina and pis-
tilla in different flowers in the same species.

21. MONCIA, male and female flowers distinct in the same plant.
22. DIŒCIA, males and females in different plants, of the same species.
23. POLYGAMIA, male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers in the same or dif-
ferent plants.

Or CLANDESTINELY, i. e. have their parts of fructification either invisible or not distinct.
24. CRYPTOGAMIA, the flowers invisible, so that they cannot be ranked ac-
cording to the parts of fructification, or distinctly described.

The orders of the first thirteen classes are distinguished by the number of the styles; of the fourteenth by the nature of the fruit, which is what the Linnæan botanists call 'naked seeds' in the first, and 'covered' in the second; of the fifteenth by the length of the pericarpium; of the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, twentieth,

CLASSES.

1. MONANDRIA 2. DIANDRIA 3. TRIANDRIA

4. TETRANDRIA

5. PENTANDRIA 6. HEXANDRIA

7. HEPTANDRIA 8. OCTANDRIA

9. ENNEANDRIA 10. DECANDRIA

11. DODECANDRIA 12. ICOSANDRIA

13. POLYANDRIA

14. DIDYNAMIA

twenty-first, and twenty-second, by the number or situation of the stamens; of the nineteenth by the relative sexes of the florets of the disk, and ray of the capituli; of the twenty-third by the sex of the flowers; and of the twenty-fourth by such general characters as are used in discriminating genera. The following is a

TABLE OF THE ORDERS.

NUMBER and NAMES of the ORDERS.
2 Monogynia, Digynia.

3 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia.
3 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia.

3 Monogynia, Digynia, Tetragynia.

6 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, Polygynia.

5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Polygynia.

4 Monogynia, Digynia, Tetragynia, Heptagynia.

4 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia.

3 Monogynia, Trigynia, Hexagynia.

5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia, Decagynia.

5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia, Dodecagynia
5 Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia, Polygynia.

72

(Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, Hexagynia, {Polygynia.

2 Gymnospermia, Angiospermia.

15. TETRADYNAMIA 2 Siliculosa, Siliquosa.

16. MONADELPHIA 17. DIADELPHIA 18. POLYADELPHIA

19. SYNGENESIA

20. GYNANDRIA

21. MONŒCIA

22. DIŒCIA

23. POLYGAMIA

24. CRYPTOGAMIA

8 { Triandria, Pentandria, Octandria, Enneandria, Decandria, Endecandria,

Dodecandria, Polyandria.

4 Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Decandria.

4 Pentandria, Dodecandria, Icosandria, Polyandria.

6

(Polygamia æqualis, Polygamia superflua, Polygamia frustranea, Polygamia necessaria, Polygamia segregata, Monogamia.

2 Monandria, Diandria.

11

15

S Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria,
Heptandria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, Gynandria.
Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria,
Octandria, Enneandria, Decandria, Dodecandria, Iccsandria, Poly-
andria, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, Gynandria.

3 Monœcia, Diœcia, Triccia.

4 Filices, Musci, Algæ, Fungi.

NATURAL SYSTEM.

263. The following is the arrangement, adopted by the most modern botanists of reputation, of the natural orders of plants. The basis of it is the system of B. Jussieu, published, in 1789, by his nephew, Anthony Jussieu; but so many altera tions and additions have been consequent upon the progress of modern science, that it has at present only a distant resemblance to its original. The best works to be consulted upon the natural system, are, for British plants, Hooker's Flora Scotica; for general botany, the Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale of De Candolle, the Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis of the same author, the Nouveaux Elémens de la Botanique of Richard, the Théorie Elémentaire de la Botanique of De Candolle, &c. There is at present (June, 1826,) no English work upon the subject of the natural arrangement of plants which deserves to be consulted.

TABLE OF THE NATURAL ORDERS OF PLANTS,
ARRANGED IN A LINEAR SERIES.

I. VASCULAR or COTYLEDONEOUS. (System fur-
nished with cellular tissue, and tubular vessels
Reproductive organs spermaceous.)

* DICOTYLEDONEOUS, or EXOGENOUS. (Vessels
arranged in concentric layers, of which the
youngest are exterior
Cotyledons opposite
or whorled.)

+ COMPLETE. Calyx and corolla, both present.
1. POLYPETALOUS.
Petals hypogynous.

a. Carpella numerous, or stamens opposite the
petals.

i. Ranunculacea.
1. Clematideæ.

2. Anemoneæ.

3. Ranunculeæ.

4. Helleboreæ.
5. Pæoniaceæ.

ii. Dilleniacea.

1. Delimeæ.
2. Dilleneæ.
iii. Magnoliaceæ.

1. Illicieæ.
2. Magnolieæ.

iv. Anonacea.
v. Menispermacea.
1. Lardizabaleæ.
2. Menispermeæ.
3. Schizandreæ.

vi. Berberideæ.

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