to a British isle near at hand called Ictis. For at low tide, all being dry between them and the island, they convey over in carts abundance of tin in the meantime. But there is one thing peculiar to these islands which lie between Britain and Europe, for at full sea they appear to be islands, but at low water for a long way they look like so many peninsulas. Hence the merchants transport the tin they buy of the inhabitants to France, and for thirty days' journey they carry it in packs upon horses' backs through France to the mouth of the river Rhone. . . . In their journeys and fights they use chariots drawn by two horses, which carry a charioteer and a soldier, and when they meet horsemen in the battle, they fall upon their enemies with their saurians,1 then quitting their chariots, they to it with their swords. There are some of them so despise death, that they will fight naked, with something only about their loins. BRITAIN UNDER ROMAN RULE 2. CÆSAR'S DESIRE TO LEARN ABOUT BRITAIN [55 B.C.] SOURCE: Cæsar, de Bello Gallico, IV, 20, from the translation by Dr. T. Rice Holmes. Cæsar made active preparations for an expedition to Britain; for he knew that in almost all the operations in Gaul our enemies had been reinforced from that country. Besides, if there were not time for a campaign, he thought that it would be well worth his while merely to visit the island, see what the people were like, and make himself acquainted with the features of the country, the harbours, and the landing-places; for of all this the Gauls knew practically nothing. No one, indeed, readily undertakes the voyage to Britain except traders; and even they know 1 A kind of dart nothing of it except the coast and the parts opposite the different regions of Gaul. Accordingly, though Cæsar summoned traders from all parts to meet him, he could not ascertain the extent of the island, what tribes dwelt therein, their strength, their method of fighting, their manners and customs, or what harbours were capable of accommodating a large flotilla. 3. CÆSAR'S DESCRIPTION OF BRITAIN AND ITS SOURCE: Cæsar, de Bello Gallico, V, 12 (Rice Holmes). The island is triangular in shape, one side being opposite Gaul. One corner of this side, by Kent-the landing-place for almost all ships from Gaul-has an easterly, and the lower one a southerly aspect. The extent of this side is about five hundred miles. The second trends westward towards Spain; off the coast here is Ireland, which is considered only half as large as Britain, though the passage is equal in length to that between Britain and Gaul. Halfway across is an island called Man; and several smaller islands also are believed to be situated opposite this coast, in which, according to some writers, there is continuous night, about the winter solstice, for thirty days. Our inquiries could elicit no information on the subject, but by accurate measurements with a water-clock we could see that the nights were shorter than on the continent. The length of the side, according to the estimate of the natives, is seven hundred miles. The third side has a northerly aspect, and no land lies opposite it; its corner however, looks, if anything, in the direction of Germany. The length of this side is estimated at eight hundred miles. Thus the whole island is two thousand miles in circumference. The interior of Britain is inhabited by a people who, according to oral tradition-so the Britains themselves say --are aboriginal; the maritime districts by immigrants who crossed over from Belgium to plunder and attack the aborigines, almost all of them being called after the tribes from whom the first-comers were an offshoot. When the war was over they remained in the country and settled down as tillers of the soil. The population is immense; homesteads, closely resembling those of the Gaul, are met with at every turn; and cattle are very numerous. Gold coins are in use or, instead of coins, iron bars of fixed weight. Tin is found in the country in the island, and iron in the maritime districts, but the latter only in small quantities; bronze is imported. Trees exist of all the varieties which occur in Gaul, except the beech and the fir. Hares, fowls, and geese they think it impious to taste; but they keep them for pastime or amusement. The climate is more equable than in Gaul, the cold being less severe. By far the most civilised of all the natives are the inhabitants of Kent-a purely maritime district-whose culture does not differ much from that of the Gauls. The people of the interior do not, for the most part, cultivate grain, but live on milk and flesh-meat, and clothe themselves with skins. All the Britains, without exception, stain themselves with woad, which produces a bluish tint; and this gives them a wild look in battle. They wear their hair long, and shave the whole of their body except the head and the upper lip. 4. HOW THE EARLY BRITONS FOUGHT [55 B.C.] SOURCE: Cæsar, de Bello Gallico, IV, 32 (Rice Holmes). Chariots are used in action in the following way. First of all, the charioteers drive all over the field, the warriors hurling missiles; and generally they throw the enemy's ranks into confusion by the mere terror inspired by their horses and the clatter of the wheels. As soon as they have penetrated between the troops of cavalry, the warriors jump off the chariots and fight on foot. The drivers meanwhile gradually withdraw from the action, and range the cars in such a position that, if the warriors are hard pressed by the enemy's numbers, they may easily get back to them. Thus they exhibit in action the mobility of cavalry combined with the steadiness of infantry; and they become so efficient from constant practice and training that they will drive their horses at full gallop, keeping them well in hand, down a steep incline, check and turn them in an instant, run along the pole, stand on the yoke, and step backwards again to the cars with the greatest nimbleness. 5. THE PEOPLES OF BRITAIN AND GAUL COMPARED SOURCE: Tacitus, Agricola, п, from the translation by Prof. Maurice Hutton (Loeb Classical Library). What race of mortal birth inhabited Britain originally whether native to the soil or later comers, is a question which, as one would expect among barbarous people, has never received attention. The physique of the people presents many varieties, whence inferences are drawn: the red hair and the large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia proclaim their German origin; the swarthy faces of the Silures, the curly quality, in general, of their hair, and the position of Spain opposite these shores, attest the passage of Iberians in old days, and the occupation by them of these districts; these people again, who adjoin Gaul are also like Gauls, whether because the influence of heredity persists, or because where two lands converge till they face each other the climatic conditions stamp a certain physique on the human body; but, taking a broad view of the case, we can readily believe that the Gauls took possession of the adjacent island. You will surprise these celebrations of Gallic ceremonies, and faith in Gallic superstitions; the language is not very different; but the Britons display a higher spirit, not having been emasculated by long years of peace. The Gauls also, according to history, once shone in war; afterwards indolence made its appearance, hand in hand with peace, and courage and liberty have been lost together. This has happened to such of the Britons as were conquered long ago the rest remain what the Gauls once were. Their strength lies in their infantry; but certain tribes also fight from chariots: the driver has the place of honour, the combatants are mere retainers. Originally the people were subject to kings: now they are distracted with parties and party spirit through the influence of chieftains; nor indeed have we any weapon against the stronger races more effective than this, that they have no common purpose: rarely will two or three states confer to repulse a common danger; accordingly they fight individually and are collecttively conquered. The sky is overcast with continual rain. and cloud, but the cold is not severe. The duration of daylight is beyond the measure of our zone: the nights are clear and, in the distant parts of Britain, short, so that there is but a brief space separating the evening and the morning twilight. If there be no clouds to hinder, the sun's brilliance -they maintain-is visible throughout the night: it neither sets nor rises, but simply passes over. The soil, except for the olive and the vine, and the other fruits usual in warmer lands, permits, and is even prolific of crops they ripen slowly, but are quick to sprout-in each case for the same reason, the abundant moisture of the soil and sky. Britain produces gold and silver and other metals : conquest is worth while. The sea also produces pearls, but somewhat clouded and leaden-hued. Some people suppose that their pearl-fishers lack skill; in the Red Sea we are to imagine them torn alive and still breathing from the shell, |