entirely in German. The subsequent philosophers were, for the most part, empirical, eclectic, or popular men, until the sage of Königsberg promulgated his critical arguments. Since Leibnitz, Germany had certainly given birth to no more illustrious spirit than KANT. His aim was, to exclude dogmatism and scepticism altogether from his inquiries, and to investigate, as he has done in his "Kritik der reinen Vernunft," and "Kritik der Urtheilskraft," the capacity of man's higher perceptions. Out of Kant's scheme eventually arose "die Wissenschaftslehre" and "die Ichphilosophie" of FICHTE. Almost simultaneously,

we have SCHELLING'S "Idealismus" and his "Naturphilosophie;" which latter, in one of its phases, exercised a dominion over æsthetics, in another, over poetic mysticism. Surveying, therefore, early speculation, the reason becomes manifest, how the times called forth a Hegel; his mission being, to combine dogmatism with philosophy: whence it follows, that Hegel's philosophy is strictly an historical one, and furthermore, that it has acted as well upon the past as upon the present, and the religious schisms that dismember the age we live in.

Hegel's entire system distributes itself into three divisions. The first of these is " Die Logik," which brings to perfection, as the science of the "Idea,""—an und für sich, --the famous dialectic analytical process, in which this philosophy has developed its highest peculiarity and greatest force, and which contains the basis of the far-famed Hegelian system. The second portion of his philosophy is the "Philosophie der Natur." The third division of the whole scheme is the "Philosophie des Geistes."

"Die Phänomenologie des Geistes" (published in 1807), was the work which first shewed forth the peculiarity and greatness of its author. It was understood, at first, by few, because, in its organic construction, it is a work of both elaborate science and of high art. It is a truly great undertaking, and was intended by its projector to conduct

to nothing less than the pinnacle of human rationality, and the "Absolute" itself. To this end, it determines the various kinds and degrees of conscience, credibility, reason, and specific knowledge.

In his "Wissenschaft der Logik" the theory of ideas was established, and this contributed considerably to the better understanding of the "Phänomenologie."

Hegel, in the two works last mentioned, having given the history of the intellect, and of the unfolding of the ideas, according to the system invented by himself; so, in his "Encyclopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften," he has given us the entire of the science of philosophy, in the same strict systematic developement. In this work, was projected and carried out on a grand scale a general chart, as it were, of philosophic learning. Again, the same author's "Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts" turn upon the most important maxims and institutions of politics; while his " Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Religion" address themselves to the dogmas and views of the Church.

Hegel's "Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte," ," "Die Geschichte der Philosophie," and "Vorlesungen über die Esthetik," complete his works, which we may pronounce a "Theodicee" of human reason.

Hegel conveys his ideas in verbal forms of his own invention,-of profound meaning, but which must appear abstruse to any one not versed in his philosophy. And these, moreover, he has otherwise left unexplained, inasmuch as he had reason to think he might safely entrust them to the research and zeal of his disciples. In other words, his philosophy, very deep and difficult in itself, becomes yet more so, from the crowd of scientific and learned terms in which its deductions are veiled.

With Germans, as with all nations, before a mastery can be obtained over such recondite themes, the main requisite,

the absolutely necessary preparative, is a liberal Vorstudium, a large circle of previous inquiry. In every-day life, and in the commonest matters, before a person's arguments can be understood, the particular technicalities of the affair must be mastered. It will easily be allowed, therefore, that he who would secure a footing in German philosophy, must come to the task well grounded in preliminary learning,—and, indeed, in what is commonly understood in England as erudition, or he cannot possibly expect to make any considerable progress in these recondite, yet sublime enquiries. We need not say that it is not sufficient to come to the task as a mere German scholar. The difficulties which have too often gained for German philosophy the flippant title of "Mystical," lie mainly in unknown or barely-understood words, and scientific expressions; the ignorance of which, on the part of the reader, should not be visited on the author. Of such difficult expressions no one is more fond and profuse than Hegel. He shews us plainly, that we must refer one portion, at least, of his reputation to this very self-dependence as regards the form and expression given to his thoughts.

Still, it must ever be borne in mind, that the philosophy of Germany speaks a language entirely its own; a language, be it observed, of philosophical terminology, which a native even has to study, before he can follow the chain of reasoning. It is easy to imagine how much more difficult it must be, for any foreigner to make himself master of this matter.

Hegel, in point of fact, requires a study infinitely more profound and exact than is generally supposed necessary in this country. The peculiar force which his phraseology produces on the mind, has caused it to be adopted in almost all the learned publications of the last fifteen years, and to a great extent particularly in the works of his scholars; insomuch, that certain theological and critical labours cannot be understood at all, without some previous know

ledge of Hegel. Consequently, no translations of works written by GANS, MARHEINEKE, STRAUSS, and FEUERBACH, among others, could be given in a way that would do justice to the author, without the translator having, as an indispensable requisite, a solid competent acquaintance with all the different schools of German philosophy, from Kant down to Hegel.*

We must here observe, that the favourers and admirers of Hegel assume the patronymic of " Heglianer" ("Hegelingen," "Hegeliter," "Jungheglianer"); while the disciples of Kant, on the other hand, style themselves "Kantianer." In the almost fathomless depths of the Hegelian philosophy, will be found the reason why the author has been sometimes designated a free-thinker, and sometimes accused of servility; also, why he has, at one time, been described as a latitudinarian, and, at another, of strict and scrupulous orthodoxy. Hegel's school of philosophy has resolved itself into two distinct branches, termed, respectively, "Die linke Seite," and "Die rechte Seite," answering to the two aspects, viz., the negative and the affirmative position of his philosophy. Now, this is nothing else than a bisection of the whole Hegelian system; but, inasmuch as they have been espoused separately by different writers, this system has of late been in a divided state. "Die linke Seite" thereof may be considered to be represented by STRAUSS, FEUERBACH, MICHELET, Vatke, Bruno Bauer, FRAUENSTEDT, RUGE, BAYRHOFER, and the "Deutschen Jahrbücher;" the centre, or the redintegrate, is represented by ROSENKRANZ; and " Die rechte Seite" is more in favour with the admirers of the old school.

* Good historical handbooks are: Michelet, "Geschichte der Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel" (in a philosophic vein); and Chalybæus, (in a popular vein).

250

SECTION I.-LYRICAL POETS.

THE SUABIAN SCHOOL.

(UHLAND.-KERNER.-SCHWAB.)

JOHANN LUDWIG UHLAND,

Born 26th April 1787, at Tübingen, now holds the important office of member of the High Council of State,--formerly the professorship of the university.

UHLAND is at once the greatest living ballad writer of Germany and a most popular man. His noble compositions are known and re-echoed by almost the entire community of the German nation. Uhland's poetry, observes Varnhagen, is "göthisch," not an imitation of Goethe's; yet may it be compared with his in value: being equally true, equally pure, and as fresh in its current. The conceptions bodied forth in his poetry refer principally to ancient days, and his stories are many of them well-known legends. His spirit, however, is strictly congenial with our own times, his metrical temperament embracing all the modern elements; so that, as far as conception and effect are concerned, this poet is truly modern. The harmonious life of nature, which it is the genius of Uhland's poetry to unfold, is always so contrived, as to set forth externally the noblest, most comprehensive, and heart-felt attributes of his Suabian mind. Each vine-capped hill, each vine-covered mound; all the verdant dales and dells, bespread with villages, and teeming with population; the freshening watercourses, and the immemorial woods,-break out everywhere into mellifluous poetry. Uhland is the great master of ballad-poetry; a simple inornate style of expression, yet full of music, and a stirring fancy, being his chief characteristics. As choice specimens of his muse, we may mention the following ballads and romances, which are perfect masterpieces in their peculiar style, viz.: "Der blinde