the constant use of concave shoes, the crust of this part of the foot grows thinner and weaker; and when the nails are fixed too far back, especially upon the inside, the horse becomes lame : to avoid this, they are placed more towards the fore part of the hoof. This causes the heels of the horse to have the greater spring upon the heels of the shoe, which is so very detrimental as to occasion lameness; whereas, by using this flat form of shoe, all these inconveniences are avoided; and if the hoofs of young horses, from the first time that they were shoed, were continued to be constantly treated according to the method here recommended, the heels would always retain their natural strength and shape. By following this flat method of shoeing, and manner of treating the hoofs, several horses now under my care, that were formerly tender footed, and frequently lame, while shoed with broad concave shoes, are now quite sound, and their hoofs in as good condition as when the first shoes were put upon them. In particular the horse that wore the broad concave shoes, from which the drawings of figs. 2 and 3 were taken, now goes perfectly sound in the open narrow kind of shoes, as represented figs. 1 and 4.

'If farriers considered attentively the design of shoeing horses, and would take pains to make themselves acquainted with the anatomical structure of the foot, they would then be convinced that this method of treating the hoofs, and this form of shoe, is preferable to that which is so generally practised.

'It has been alleged that, in this form of shoe, horses do not go so well as in that commonly used. This objection will easily be laid aside, by attending to the following particulars. There are but few practitioners that can or will endeavour to make this sort of shoe as it ought to be. The iron, in forming it, does not so easily turn into the circular shape necessary as in the common shoe; and perhaps this is the principal reason why farriers object to it, especially where they work much by the piece. And, as many horses that are commonly shoed with concave shoes have their soles considerably higher than the crust, if the shoe is not properly formed, or if it be made too flat, it must unavoidably rest upon the sole and occasion lameness. The practice of paring the sole and frog is also prevalent, and thought so absolutely necessary that it is indiscriminately practised, even to excess, on all kinds of feet: and while this method continues to be followed, it cannot be expected that horses can go upon hard ground (on this open shoe) with that freedom they would do if their soles and frogs were allowed to remain in their full natural strength. Experience teaches us that, in very thin-soled shoes, we feel an acute pain from every sharp-pointed stone we happen to tread upon. Horses are sensible of the same thing in their foot, when their soles, &c., are pared too thin. Hence they who are prejudiced against this method, without ever reflecting on the thin state of the sole, &c. are apt to condemn it, and draw their conclusions more from outward appearances than from any reasoning or knowledge of the structure of the parts. From a due attention likewise to the structure of a horse's foot in

a natural state, it will be obvious, that paring away the sole, frog, &c., must be hurtful, and in reality is destroying that substance provided by nature for the defence of the internal parts of the foot: from such practice it must be more liable to accidents from hard bodies, such as sharp stones, nails, glass, &c. From this consideration we shall likewise find, that a narrow piece of iron, adapted to the shape and size of the foot, is the only thing necessary to protect the crust from breaking or wearing away the sole &c., require no defence if never pared.

'There is one observation I would farther make, which is, that the shoe should be made of good iron, well worked, or what smiths call hammer-hardened, that is, beaten all over lightly with a hammer when almost cold. The Spaniards and Portuguese farriers use this practice greatly, insomuch that many people, who have seen them at work, have reported that they form their horses shoes without heating them in the fire as we do. It is well known, that heating of iron till it is red softens it greatly; and when shoes thus softened are put upon horses' feet, they wear away like lead. But when the shoes are well hammered, the iron becomes more compact, firm, and hard; so that a well-hammered shoe, though made considerably lighter, yet will last as long as one that is made heavier; the advantage of which is obvious, as the horse will move his feet with more activity, and be in less danger of cutting his legs. The common concave shoes are very faulty in that respect; for, in fitting or shaping them to the foot, they require to be frequently heated, in order to make them bend to the unequal surface which the hoof acquires from the constant use of these shoes: they thereby become soft; and to attempt to harden them by beating or hammering, when they are shaped to the foot, would undo the whole. But flat shoes, by making them, when heated, a little narrower than the foot, will, by means of hammering become wider, and acquire a degree of elasticity and firmness which it is necessary they should have, but impossible to be given them by any other means whatever; so that any farrier, from practice, will soon be able to judge, from the quality of the iron, how much a shoe, in fitting it to the circumference of the hoof, will stretch by hammering when it is almost cold; this operation, in fitting flat shoes, will be the less difficult, when it is considered, that as there are no inequalities on the surface of the hoof (or at least ought not to be) which require to be bended thereto, shoes of this kind only require to be made smooth and flat; hence they will press equally upon the circumference or crust of the hoof, which is the natural tread of a horse.'

Mr. St. Bel, the first professor appointed at the Veterinary College, London, constructed a shoe different from the common style, in being somewhat convex on that side which is placed in contact with the horse's foot, but considerably so on that surface which is presented to the ground. On this plan, the horses sent for shoeing to the college were for some time shod; and it cannot be denied, that if every horse so sent had had the advantage of a perfectly natural hoof, Mr. St. Bel's shoe might have been found

worthy the name of an improvement, since its formation was certainly adapted to what the shape of the horse's foot naturally is, and ought to be, if the farriers would permit. See fig. 5. As the case was otherwise, however, in a great majority of instances, many who had sanguine expectations from the invention, were disappointed. Nevertheless this shoe has its advantages, which are set forth at large, by the author in a 4to. volume on the subject, to which we refer the reader.

Taplin recommends a form of a shoe, which differs little from that of Mr. St. Bel, except that it is broader in the rim, and concave where the other is convex on the side next the foot. See fig. 6. He advises that the shoe should be uniformly supported by the hoof only, entirely round the foot, and brought so regularly into contact, that it should not press more upon one part than another. It should also be formed with a concave inner surface to keep it perfectly clear of the sole, that the point of the picker may occasionally pass under the inner part of the web, to free it from every extraneous substance. The shoe should not be made too wide in the web, or too weighty in the metal; and the heel of the shoe should always rather exceed the termination of the hoof behind, and be formed something wider than the heel itself.'

Some modern authors, particularly Osmer, in stead of attempting to improve the horse-shoe, propose to lay aside the use of it altogether, for which they are severely censured by Mr. Taplin. They seem,' says he,extravagantly fond of an idea, borrowed from antiquity, of the practicability of horses travelling the road, and doing their constant work, without any shoeing at all.' Osmer insists, that horses are adequate to their different services in a state of nature, without the officious obtrusions of art;' venturing to affirm that they will travel even upon the turnpike roads about London without injury to their feet.' As Mr. Taplin, however, observes, such an economical plan may be admirably calculated for the theoretical journey of some literary speculatist, but no such excursion can take place of any duration, without material injury to the hoof.'

Mr. Coleman, a late ingenious professor at the Veterinary College, has made a material improvement on the horse-shoe. In his lectures he observes that, for a good natural foot (see fig. 7), all that is required of a shoe is, to guard the crust by a small and narrow piece of iron, which should be attached principally towards the toe, and should not be extended so far back as the heel. The sole itself should not be covered by the shoe; for dirt and stones will get between, and will form a permanent and partial pressure on the sole, which will produce disease. Ac cording to the present mode of shoeing, those diseases which affect the horse's foot constantly take place on that portion of it which is covered by the extended breadth of the shoe, while the exposed parts remain uninjured. The reason is, that the covered parts, besides being exposed to permanent pressure from the cause already related, become tender by being covered. If these parts, therefore, are exposed, they get har

dened and thick; and, if the horse happens to tread on a hard and rough body, the inconvenience is but momentary, and the pain will make him remove his foot, so as to prevent mischief.

Common shoeing is very liable to produce corns by the hoofs spreading out, and leaving the shoe in close contact with the sole, where it acts as a fixed point, and will not allow the elasticity of the insensible sole to act. The nails of the shoe should not be placed near the heels; for it disposes the heel to contract, especially when the bars are cut away. The narrow shoe has another advantage. The horse is less likely to slip than with the broad one, on any ground on which the foot makes an impression. But it would not perhaps be quite so proper for horses always treading on a pavement, such as the streets of London; nor for horses that are calculated for heavy draught, such as dray or cart horses, which require not only a stouter shoe, but also to be turned up behind, in order to resist the descent of heavy loads in passing down a hill, &c.

Fig. 8 represents Mr. Coleman's shoe, the principle of which rests not only on the advantages attending the exposure of the horny sole, but likewise on an objection to which all shoes are liable that require to be nailed all round, as in common instances. The na ls at the quarters form so many fixed points, and prevent that expansion which is natural to the hoof in consequence of its growth; and the effect of this confinement is that of contracting the whole foot, and particularly the heel; to which many of the diseases of that part may be attributed. In Mr. Coleman's shoe this material objection seems to be removed; for it requires to be fixed to the wall of the foot only by a few nails at the toe, which leaves the growth of the quarters entirely to take their natural direction.

Almost every veterinary professor has his favorite shoe: one of the most ingenious of the present day is endeavouring to force on our notice, and introduce into our stables, the French method; which, with the exception of the mode of nailing on, White observes, is the very worst he ever saw. The French shoe, fig. 9 (a), has a wide web towards the toe; is concave above and convex below (b), on the ground surface, by which neither the toe nor heel touch the ground; but the horse stands pretty much in the same way as an unhappy cat, shod by unlucky boys with walnut shells.

The improved shoe for general use, fig. 10, which Mr. Loudon recommends, is rather wider than what is usually made. 'Its nail holes (a) extend no further towards the heels than is actually necessary for security; by which the expansion of these parts is encouraged, and contraction is avoided. To strengthen the attachment, and to make up for this liberty given to the heels, the nails shouldi be carried round the front of the shoe (c). The nail holes, on the under or ground surface of the shoe (a) are usually formed in a gutter, technically called the fullering; but in the case of heavy treading powerful horses, this gutter may be omitted; or, if adopted, the shoe in that part may be steeled. The web should be

quite even on the foot or hoof surface (b), and not only be rather wider, but it should also have rather more substance than is common: from half an inch to five eighths in thickness, according to circumstance, forms a fair proportion; when it is less it is apt, in wearing, to bend to pressure and force out the clinches."

The bar shoe, fig. 11, is a defence to thin weak feet, which Mr. L. regrets there should be so much prejudice against using. It removes a part of the pressure from the heels and quarters, which can ill bear it, to the frog which can well bear it a well formed bar shoe should not have its barred part raised into an edge behind, but such part should be of one uniform thickness throughout the web of the bar, which, instead of being the narrowest, should be the widest part of the shoe. The thickness of the bar should be greater or less (a), so as to be adapted to take only a moderate pressure from the frog. When the frog is altogether ulcerated away, by thrush, the bar may be altogether plain; but this form of shoe is still the best for these cases, as it prevents the tender surface from being wounded. In corns this shoe is invaluable, and may then be so made as to lie off the affected part, which is the great desideratum in corns.

The hunting shoe is a light horse-shoe, and it should be made to sit flat to the foot. 'Hunting fore shoes,' says the above ingenious writer, 'should also be as short at the heels as is consistent with safety to the foot, to avoid the danger of being pulled off by the hinder shoes: nor should the web project at all. It is the custom to turn up the outer heel to prevent slipping; which is done sometimes to both fore and hind feet, and sometimes only to the latter. As this precaution can hardly be avoided in hilly slippery grounds, it should be rendered as little hurtful as possible by making the tread equal; for which purpose thicken the inner heel and turn up the outer. This is better than lowering the outer heel to receive the shoe, which still leaves both the tread and foot uneven. The racing shoe, or plate, is one made as light and slender as will bear the weight of the horse, and the operations of forging, grooving, and punching: to enable it to do which, it ought to be made of the very best Swedish iron. Three, or at most four nails, are sufficient on each side; and, to avoid the interfering of the hind with the fore feet, the heels of the fore shoes are made as short as they can safely be. As racers are shod in the stable, the owners should be doubly careful that the plate is an exact fit. Many pairs ought to be brought and tried before any are suffered to be put on, and which is more important than is at first considered.' Loudon's Agriculture, 8vo.

Grass shoes, or tips, are short pieces sometimes placed on the toe in horses turned to grass in summer; at which time it is necessary to guard the fore feet, which otherwise become broken away. They should be looked at occasionally, to see that they do not become indented into the soles of the feet.

When the roads are covered with ice it is necessary to have the heels of a horse's shoes turned up, and frequently sharpened, to prevent him from slipping and falling: but this cannot

be done without the frequent moving of the shoes, which breaks and destroys the crust of the hoof where the nails enter. To prevent this, it is recommended to those who are willing to be at the expense, to have steel points screwed into the heels or quarters of each shoe, which might be taken out and put in occasionally. To do this properly, Clark advises, first, to have the shoes fitted to the shape of the hoof; then to make a small round hole in the extremity of each heel, or in the quarters, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, or more, in proportion to the breadth and size of the shoe; in each of these holes a screw is to be made; the steel points are likewise to have a screw on them, exactly fitted to that in the shoes. Care must be taken that the screw in the points is no longer, when they are screwed into the shoe, than the thickness of the latter. The steel points are to be made sharp; they may either be made square, triangular, or chisel-pointed, as may be most agreeable; the height of the point above the shoe should not exceed half an inch for a saddle horse; they may be made higher for a draught horse. The key or handle for screwing them in and out, occasionally, is represented in fig. 13, and is made of a sufficient size and strength; at the bottom of the handle a socket or cavity must be made, properly adapted to the shape of the steel point, and so deep as to receive the whole head of the point that is above the shoe.

To prevent the screw from breaking at the neck, it is necessary to make it of a gradual taper; the same is likewise to be observed of the female screw that receives it, that is, the hole must be wider on the upper part of the shoe than the under part; the sharp points may be tempered or hardened, in order to prevent them from growing too soon blunt; but where they become blunt they may be sharpened as at first. These points should be unscrewed when the horse is put into the stable, as the stones will do them more injury in a few minutes than a day's riding on ice. A draught horse should have one on the point of each shoe, as that gives him a firmer footing in drawing on ice; but for a saddle horse, when points are put there they are apt to make him trip and stumble.

When the shoes are provided with these points, a horse will travel on ice with the greatest security and steadiness, much more so than on causeway or turnpike roads, as the weight of the horse presses them into the ice at every step he takes.

Dr. Moore has suggested a frost clip, fig. 12, to be made distinct and moveable by means of a female screw b, worked into it, to which is fitted a knob or wedge c, and male screw d; a key, e, being used to fix and remove it.

FARRINGDON, a market town and parish of Berkshire, fourteen miles west from Abingdon, and sixty-eight W. N. W. from London. The town stands on the side of a hill, and has a very large and handsome church, the east end of which is of great antiquity: the windows are similar to those of the Temple in London; it contains several very handsome monuments, and on the south side is that of the founder. The