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south; in order that the crops on either side of them may receive equal sun. In this case, consequently, the fences, which form the two longer sides of the quadrangle, should take that direction. But, where the surface is steep, this principle of direction must give way to another of great importance. If the land be retentive, and the soil require to be laid up into round beds, across the slope, the direction of the ridges must be guided by the face of the slope; and the fences, on the general principle, ought to take the same direction; observing, in this case, where circumstances will admit, to let them wind to the right of a person standing on the brink of the slope, and facing towards it; as the beds ought to take that direction for the greater ease in ploughing them. Where the face of a hill is steep, and the land absorbent, the soil requires to be turned downwards of the slope with a turnwrest or Kentish plough; and the fences to be directed by the natural lines of the hill.

The supply of water is the main consideration in laying out grazing grounds, cow grounds, and pasture grounds in general. Wherever good water is found naturally, or can be conveniently brought by art, to that point a pasture ground ought to tend, in order to enjoy the supply as much as possible. In laying out water-meadows, where they are situated on sloping grounds, or the higher sides of which adjoin to upper lands, the main conductor (where a proper fall from the source of the water will admit of it) ought to define the outline of the meadow on that side; and the fence which separates the meadow lands from the dry grounds ought to run immediately along the upper side of the water-course; the two thus becoming natural guards to each other. Within an extended flat, or an extent of gently shelving meadow grounds, belonging to different proprietors, and where deep ditches are required to be sunk on the upper sides of the fences, to drain the lands that lie above them, the plan here recommended would be improper. But in the situations described above it is perfectly eligible, and ought not, in ordinary cases, to be departed from.

The size of fields, it has been observed by a - modern writer, must bear some proportion to the strength of the farmer with regard to ploughs and horses. "For instance, where six two-horse ploughs are kept, and where it is difficult, from the nature of the soil, to have the fields of a large extent sufficiently dry, from eighteen to twentyfive English acres are considered to be a convenient size. With twelve horses a field of this extent can always be finished in four, or at the utmost in five days. There is less risk, therefore, of being overtaken by bad weather, and prevented from completing the preparation of the land for the internal crop. When the fields are of too great an extent, in proportion to the stock kept, a considerable interval must occur between the sowing of the first and of the last part; and it will in general be desirable to have each field cleared at the same time in harvest. The harrowing also is done more economically, when the field is sown at once, than in several portions; and where rolling is required, that operation being most effectually done across, it cannot well be

accomplished till the field has been completed. Hence the advantages of having the size of the fields in some degree commensurate to the stock of working animals upon the farm.'

'Though on large farms,' continues this writer, fields should, in general, be formed on an extensive scale, there is a convenience in having a few smaller fields near the farm-house for keeping the family cows; for turning out young horses, mares, and foals; for raising a great variety of vegetables; and for trying experiments ou a small scale, which may afterwards be extended, if they shall be found to answer. Where enclosures are too large for particular purposes, and where no small fields, as above recommended, have been prepared, large fields may be subdivided by sheep-hurdles, a sort of portable fence well known to every turnip-grower. In this way great advantage may be derived from the constant use of land that would otherwise have been occupied by stationary fences; and the expense of subdivisions, which, on a large farm, would necessarily have been numerous, is thereby avoided. This fence is perfectly effectual against sheep, though it is not so well calculated for stronger animals. On dry soils, where sheep are generally pastured, it is not unlikely that, by using moveable hurdles, the expense of permanent fences might, in a great measure, be saved.'

In the Code of Agriculture it is observed, that when a whole farm is divided into fields of various sizes, it is difficult to form a plan, so as to suit a regular rotation of crops, or to keep very accurate accounts. Whereas, by having the fields in general of a large size, the whole strength of a farm, and the whole attention of the farmer, is directed to one point; while an emulation is excited among the ploughmen, when they are thus placed in circumstances which admit their work to be compared. Some small fields are certainly convenient on any farm, for grazing and other purposes, to be afterwards explained. On elevated situations, also, the shelter derived from small enclosures is of use.

Sometimes a farm is situated on both sides of a highway; in which case all the fields may be made to open into it, either directly or through an intervening field. Here no private road is wanting, excepting a few yards to reach the farmery. But when, as is most generally the case, the lands are situated at a distance from a great road, and approached by a lane or bye-road, then from that bye-road a private road is required to the farmery, and a lane or lanes from it so contrived as to touch at most of the fields of the farm. In wet and clayey soils, these lanes must be formed of durable materials; but in dry soils, provided attention be paid to fill in the cart ruts as they are formed (by the leading out of dung, or home of corn,) by small stones, gravel, or even earth, the lane may remain green; and being fed with sheep or cattle will not be altogether lost. It is essentially necessary to make a piece of road at the gate of every eclosure, being the spot which is most frequently in use. Without this precaution, it often becomes a mire where corn is thrown down and spoiled in harvest, or if it is attempted to avoid the mire, the gate-posts and neighbouring fence are

often damaged. (Communications to the board of Agriculture, vol. ii.) With good private roads a farmer will perform his operations at much less expense; the labor of the horses will be much easier; a greater quantity or weight of grain and other articles may be more expeditiously carried over them; manure can be more easily conveyed to the fields; the harvest can be carried on more rapidly; and wear and tear of every description will be greatly reduced. (Code of Agriculture, p. 158.) The gates of fields, it has been observed, should in most cases be placed in the middle of that side of the field which is nearest the road; and not in an angle, or at one corner, unless particular circumstances point out this as the preferable mode.

On the subject of fences in general see HusBANDRY. Respecting one conspicuous boundary of some farms, hedge-row trees, a great difference of opinion prevails. While they improve the landscape, it seems to be agreed by the most intelligent agriculturists that they are extremely hurtful to the fence, and for some distance to the crops on each side; and it is evident, that in many instances the highways, on the sides of which they often stand, suffer greatly from their shade. It has therefore been doubted, whether such trees be profitable to the proprie tor, or beneficial to the public; to the farmer they are almost in every case injurious, to a degree beyond what is commonly imagined. (Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica article AGRICULTURE.) Loch, however, a well informed improver of landed property, is of a different opinion. He says, there is no change in the rural economy of England more to be regretted, than the neglect which is now shown to the cultivation and growth of hedge-row timber. The injury which it does to the cultivation of the land is much exaggerated, especially if à proper selection of trees is made; but even the growth of the ash, so formidable to agriculturists, might be defended on the ground that, without it, the best implements employed in the cultivation of the soil could not be made. It is well known that good hedge-row timber is by far the most valua ble both for naval and domestic purposes. Its superior toughness rendering it equally valuable to the ship and to the plough-wright. The value which it is of, in affording shelter, is also of material use; besides, the raising of grain is not the only purpose of life, or the only matter to be attended to, nor the only object worthy of attention. The purposes of war and the national glory, the protection and extension of our commerce, the construction and repair of buildings, and even the enjoyment arising from the rich and beautiful effect produced by such decoration and ornament, are all objects of material importance to the well-being and constitution of a highly cultivated state of 30ciety. Even upon the more narrow basis of individual utility, this practice might be defended and recommended; for it is not useless to consider how many families and estates have been preserved, when pressed by temporary difficulties (from which none are exempted), from a fall of hedge-row timber. One of the best legacies, that a great proprietor can

leave his country and his family, is an estate well stocked with such trees.

2. Of the arrangement of farm buildings, and the enclosures of a farmery.-According to Beatson, the first thing to be taken into consideration upon this subject is the nature and produce of the farm: hence may be judged the different kinds of accommodation that will be necessary. Every farm, for example, must have, 1. A dwelling-house; 2. A barn suitable to the extent of arable land in the farm, either with or without a threshing mill, but always with one if possible; and it should be endeavoured to place it so that it may go by water, if a supply can be had; 3. Stables, the dimensions of which must be determined according to the number of horses necessary for the farm; 4. Cow-houses, or feeding-houses, or both, according to the number of cows and cattle, and so on, till the whole accommodations and their dimensions are fixed upon.

Having ascertained these, and the situation for building on being also settled, the ground must be carefully and attentively viewed; and, if not very even, the different levels must be observed, and the best way of conducting all the necessary drains, and carrying off all superfluous moisture. Also the best situation for dung and urine-pits, or reservoirs, which will, in a great degree, ascertain at once where the cattle-houses and stables should be. These being fixed on, the barn should be as near them as possible, for the convenience of carrying straw to the cattle; and the barn-yard should be contiguous to the barn. These main points being determined on, the others will easily be found; always observing this rule, to consider what is the nature of the work to be done about each office, and then the easiest and least laborious way to perform that work, so far as it is connected with other offices. In case this should not be sufficiently explicit, suppose, by way of illustration, the situation of a feedinghouse is to be considered of. The nature of the work to be performed here is, bringing food and litter to the cattle, and taking away their dung. The place from whence the greatest part perhaps of their food and all their litter comes, is the barn; therefore the feeding-house should be as near the barn as possible. If turnips, or other roots, or cabbages, make a part of their food, the most commodious way of giving these must be determined on; whether by having a roothouse adjoining the cattle-house, and that filled occasionally, or by having a place to lay them down in, near the heads of the stall, from whence they are thrown in at holes left in the wall for that purpose. The easiest method of clearing away the dung must also be considered, and the distance from the main dung-pit and urine reservoir. The same general rule being observed in determining on the site of all the other offices or accommodations, together with a careful examination of the ground to be occupied (upon which the arrangement of the offices in a great measure should depend), any person conversant in rural affairs, who attends to these particulars, and can lay down his ideas in a drawing, may easily direct the planning and building of a very commodious set of offices. With respect to the

site of the dwelling-house, it may be remarked, that, although a house being situate in the middle of a regular front is, in some points of view, the most pleasing way, and in many situations perhaps the best, yet, unless the ground and other circumstances in every respect favor such a disposition, it should not invariably be adhered to; for it may often happen, that a much better situation for the dwelling-house may be obtained at a little distance from the offices, a pleasing uniformity be observed in them at the same time, and the house be more healthy and agreeable. In some cases, and for some kinds of farms, it may be particularly necessary to have the house so placed, in respect to the offices and farm-yard, as to admit of their being constantly inspected, and the labor that is to be performed in them at tended to and overlooked.

The requisites of a farmstead,' says Mr. Marshall, are as various as the intentions of farms. A sheep-farm, a grazing-farm, a hay-farm, a dairy-farm, and one under mixed cultivation, may require different situations, and different arrangements of yards and buildings. On a farm of the last species, which may be considered as the ordinary farm of this kingdom, the principal requisites are shelter, water, an area or site sufficiently flat for yards and buildings; with meadow land below it, to receive the washings of the yards; as well as sound pasture grounds above it for a grass-yard and paddocks; with private roads nearly on a level to the principal arable lands; and with suitable outlets to the nearest or best markets.'

For a mixed husbandry farm, the particulars, to be arranged, according to Marshall, are thus enumerated; 1. A suit of buildings, adapted to the intended plan of management;—as a dwelling-house, barns, stables, cattle-sheds, cart-shed. 2. A spacious yard, common to the buildings, and containing a receptacle of stall-manure, whether arising from stables, cattle-sheds, hogstyes, or other buildings; together with separate folds, or straw-yards, furnished with appropriate sheds, for particular stock, in places where such are required. 3. A reservoir, or catchpool, situated on the lower side of the buildings and yards, to receive their washings, and collect them in a body for the purpose of irrigating the lands below them. 4. A corn yard, convenient to the barns; and a hay-yard contiguous to the cow or fatting-sheds. 5. A garden and fruit ground near the house. 6. A spacious grass-yard or green, embracing the whole or principal part of the conveniences; as an occasional receptacle for stock of every kind; as a common pasture for swine, and a range for poultry; as a security to the fields from stock straying out of the inner yards; and as an ante-field or lobby, out of which the home grounds and driftways may be conveniently entered. An accurate delineation of the site which is fixed on, requires,' he observes, 'to be drawn out on a scale; the plannist studying the subject, alternately, upon the paper, and on the ground to be laid out; continuing to sketch and correct his plan, until he has not a doubt left on his mind; and then to mark out the whole upon the ground, in a conspicuous and permanent manner, before the foundation of any par

ticular building be attempted to be laid. It may. he adds, be conceived by a person who has not turned his attention to this subject, that there must be some simple, obvious, and fixed plan to proceed upon. But seeing the endless variety in the mere dwelling-places of men, it is not to be wondered at if a still greater variety of plans should take place where so many appurtenances are required, and these on sites so infinitely various; nor that men's opinions and practices should differ so much on the subject, that on a given site, no two practical men, it is more than probable, would make the same arrangement.' There are, however,' he says, 'certain principles which no artist ought to lose sight of in laying out such buildings and conveniences. The barns, the stables, and the granary, should be under the eye, should be readily seen from the dwellinghouse. The prevailing idea, at present, is, that the several buildings ought to form a regular figure, and enclose an area or farm-yard, either as a fold for loose cattle, or, where the stalling of cattle is practised, as a receptacle for dung, and the most prevailing figure is the square. But this form is, he thinks, more defective than the oval or circle, the angles being too sharp, and the corners too deep. Besides, the roadway, necessary to be carried round a farm-yard in order to have a free and easy passage between the different buildings, is inconveniently lengthened or made at greater expense. The view of the whole yard and buildings from the house, on one side of it, is likewise more confined.' He on the whole prefers the complete octagon, the dwellinghouse a being on one side, and the entrance gateway and granary opposite; the remaining six sides being occupied by stables and cattle-sheds, and other out-buildings, c, d, e, a barn and threshing machine, f, with a broad-way, dipping gently from the buildings, g, and surrounding a wide shallow dung-basin, h, which occupy the rest of the area of the yard. Externally is a basin for the drainings of the yard, i; and grass enclosures for calves, poultry, fruit trees, and rick-yard.

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The following plan of the arrangement of a small farm-house and offices, which he considers very convenient, is given by Beatson. At the north-west corner is the barn (1), with a water threshing-mill; a straw-house (2), being a continuation of the barn above, for holding a quantity of straw after it is threshed, or hay, that it may be at hand to give to the cattle in the feeding-house below. The upper part of this

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A court for the dung-hill (3) has a door to it from the feeding-house, and a large entry at the other end to admit carts to take away the dung: on the outside of this should be a urine-pit, in the most convenient place, according to the form of the ground; a cow-house (4) has a door also to the dung-court; and a calf-pen (5) with a rail across to keep in the calves, even though the doors are all open, adjoins; there is a stable, with a harness-room, and a place for keeping corn (6); a root-house (7), over which, or over the barn, may be a granary; a shed for carts (8); a place for keeping large implements, as ploughs and harrows (9); for keeping smaller implements, as spades, shovels, rakes, forks, &c., and for laying by old iron and many other useful things that might otherwise be lost or thrown away (10); a pond for washing the horses' feet (11); which slopes down from each extremity towards the middle, where it is deepest, that the horses may easily go in at one end, and come out at the other, with a rail at each end, to prevent their going in during frost, or when not wanted to go; a pump, with a trough for the horses or cattle to drink in, especially while other water is frozen, or when the water in the pond is dirty (12); but, if it can be contrived so that the water which drives the mill may run through this pond, it will be preferable as being at all times clean and wholesome. One advantage of this arrangement, as Beatson remarks, is, that the fodder consumed upon the farm goes progressively forward from the barn-yard through the cattle-houses to the dung-hill, without the unnecessary labor generally occasioned by carrying it backwards and forwards. For it comes from the barn-yard into the barn, where it is threshed; it is then put in the strawhouse, and given to the cattle immediately below; and after passing through them, it is VOL. IX.

thrown into the dung-court. A rick of straw, or hay, built behind the stable or cow-house, or in a shed contiguous to either, with proper conveniences, will have the same progressive course to the dung-hill; for, it will be observed, the communication from these is equally easy from without or within; the rail across the calf-pen being intended chiefly to keep in the calves, while the doors on each side are open when conveying the dung that way from the stable to the dung-hill.

The ground floor of the dwelling-house to this farmery (13), has a dairy, pantry, and various conveniences behind for keeping swine, poultry, coals, &c. The stair to the upper chambers rises from either side to the same landing-place; from whence are a few steps up to the chamberfloor.

The following diagrams represent the elevation, and two ground plans, of a farm-house on a large scale, and which might be extended to any size. The ground plan, fig. 2, is divided into a, the principal entry; u, the parlour; c, the family bed-room; d, the kitchen; e, the dairy; f, the pantry and cellar; the three latter being attached to the back part of the house by a continuation of the same roof downwards. permitting the ceilings to be seven and a half or eight feet in height, some small bed rooms may be provided above them, having a few steps down from the floor of the front rooms, or a few steps p from the first landing place.

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the back door of the kitchen enters into a brewhouse and wash-house; the fire place and copper being behind the kitchen vent. Beyond this brew-house is a place for holding fire-wood, &c.; 11: the back walls of which are openings to feed the swine at. In the kitchen is an oven; and below the grate an excellent contrivance for baking occasionally, but chiefly employed for the purpose of keeping the servants' meat warm. It consists of a plate of cast iron, with a door similar to that of an oven. The up-stairs part is divided in the front into two good rooms, and into two small ones on the back part, but may be easily subdivided where necessary.

Fig. 3 exhibits another mode of dividing the ground floor, in which a is the parlour; b, the kitchen; c, the closet; d, the dairy; e, the pantry; f, the coal-house; g, the poultry-house; h, the pig-sty, which has an opening into the kitchen; i, the back entry. The chamber-floor may be divided likewise, where it is requisite, into two good bed-rooms, and a light closet ca

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Names of Men and Horses. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thur. Frid. Sat. No. of Days. Rate per Day.

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