swer was repeated to them, though they plainly saw against whom they were marching, they resolved to proceed, and only demanded an augmentation of their pay. Cyrus, instead of one daric a month to each soldier, promised to give them one and a half.t Some time after, Cyrus was informed that two of the principal officers, upon account of a private quarrel with Clearchus, had deserted with part of their equipage on board a merchant ship. Many were of opinion, that it was proper to send two galleys after them, which might be done with great ease; and that when they were brought back, they should be made an example, by suffering death in the sight of the whole army. Cyrus, convinced that favour was the most certain means to the attainment of affection, and that punishments, like violent remedies, ought never to be used but in extreme necessity, declared publicly that he would not suffer it to be said that he had detained any one in his service by force; and added, that he would send them their wives and children, whom they had left as hostages in his hands. An answer of so much wisdom and generosity had a surprising effect: and even made those his firm adherents, who were before inclined to retire. This is an excellent lesson for all who govern. There is in the mind of man a fund of natural generosity, which it is necessary to know and apply. Threats exasperate them, and chastisement makes them revolt, when endeavours are used to force them to do their duty against their will. They desire a certain degree of confidence in their honour, and that the glory of acquitting themselves of it out of choice be left in their power. To show that you believe men faithful, is often the best means to make them so.§ Cyrus soon after declared, that he marched against Artaxerxes. Upon wluch some murmuring was heard at first; but it soon gave place to the expressions of joy and satisfaction, occasioned by that prince's magnificent promises to the army. As Cyrus advanced by long marches, he was informed from all parts, that the king did not intend to come directly to a battle, but had resolved to wait in the remote parts of Persia, till all his forces were assembled; and that to stop his enemies, he had ordered an intrenchment to be thrown up in the plains of Babylon, with a fosse five fathoms broad, and three deep, extending the distance of twelve parasangas or leagues, from the Euphrates to the wall of Media. Between the Euphrates and the fosse a way had been left of twenty feet in breadth, by which Cyrus passed with his whole army, having reviewed it the day before. The king had neglected to dispute this pass with him, and suffered him to continue his march towards Babylon. It was Tiribasus who determined him not to fly in such a manner before an enemy, against whom he had infinite advantages, as well from the number of his troops, as the valour of his generals. He resolved therefore to advance against the enemy.¶ SECTION II. THE BATTLE OF CUNAXA. CYRUS IS KILLED. THE place where the battle was fought, was called Cunaxa, about twentyfive leagues from Babylon.** The army of Cyrus consisted of thirteen thousand Greeks, a hundred thousand barbarians, and twenty chariots armed with scythes. The enemy in horse and foot, might amount to about twelve hundred thousand, under four generals, Tissaphernes, Gobryas, Arbaces, and Abrocomas, without including six thousand chosen horse, that fought where the king It is not said where he commanded. It appears to have been pon the Euphrates. He marched with three hundred thousand men to join the king's army, but did not arrive till after the battle. The daric was worth $1.87. Beneficiis potius gram remediis ingenia experiri placuit.-Plin. in Traj. The parasanga is a measure peculiar to the Persiars. It was commonly thirty stadia. Some were from twenty to sixty stadia In the march of Cyrus's army, I suppose the parasanga only twenty stadia for reasons I shall give hereafter. ¶ Plut. in Artax. p. 1014. Xenoph. 1. i. p. 261–266. ** Five hundred stadia. was present, and never quitted his person. But Abrocomas, who had the command of three hundred thousand men, did not arrive till five days after the battle. In the king's army were only a hundred and fifty chariots armed with scythes.* Cyrus believed, from the enemy's not having defended the pass at the fosse, that there would be no battle; so that the next day the army marched with great negligence. But on the third, Cyrus being in his chariot, with a few soldiers in their ranks before him, and the rest marching without any order, or having their arms carried for them, a horseman came in full speed, crying out as he passed, that the enemy approached in order of battle. Upon this, great confusion ensued, from the apprehension that they should not have time to draw up the army. Cyrus, leaping from his chariot, put on his arms immediately, and getting on horseback with his javelin in his hand, gave orders to the troops to stand to their arms, and fall into their ranks; which was executed with so much expedition, that the troops had not time to refresh themselves. Cyrus posted upon his right a thousand Paphlagonian horse, supported by the Euphrates, and the light armed infantry of the Greeks; and next them, Clearchus, Proxenes, and the rest of the general officers after Menon, at the head of their several corps. The left wing, composed of Lydians, Phrygians, and other Asiatic nations, were commanded by Ariæus, who had a thousand horse. Cyrus placed himself in the centre, where the chosen troops of the Persians and other barbarians were posted. He had round him six hundred horsemen, armed at all points, as were their horses, with head and breast pieces. The prince's head was uncovered, as were those of all the Persians, whose custom it was to give battle in that manner. The arms of all his people were red, and those of Artaxerxes were white. 66 A little before the onset, Clearchus advised Cyrus not to charge in person, but to cover himself in the rear of the Grecian battalions. "What is it you say?" replied Cyrus ; at the time I am endeavouring to make myself king, would you have me show myself unworthy of being so?" That wise and generous answer proves, that he knew the duty of a general, especially in a day of battle. Had he withdrawn, when his presence was most necessary, it would have argued his want of courage, and intimidated others. It is necessary, always preserving the due distinction between the leader and the troops, that their danger should be common, and no one exempted from it, lest the latter should be alarmed by a different conduct. Courage in an army depends upon example, upon the desire of being distinguished, the fear of dishonour, the incapacity of doing otherwise than the rest, and equality of danger. The retiring of Cyrus, would have either ruined, or greatly weakened all these potent motives, by discouraging both the officers and soldiers of his army. He thought, that being their general, it was incumbent on him to discharge all the functions of that office, and to show himself worthy to be the leader and soul of such a number of valiant men, ready to shed their blood for his service. It was now noon; and the enemy did not yet appear. But about three o'clock a great dust like a white cloud arose, followed soon after by a darkness that overshadowed the whole plain, after which was seen the glittering of armour, lances, and standards. Tissaphernes commanded the left, which consisted of cavalry armed with white cuirasses, and of light-armed infantry: in the centre was the heavy-armed foot, a great part of which had bucklers made of wood, which covered the soldier entirely these were Egyptians. The rest of the light-armed infantry and of the horse formed the right wing. The foot were drawn up by nations, with as much depth as front; and in that order formed square battalions. The king had posted himself in the main body, with the flower of the whole army, and had six thousand horse for his guard, commanded by Artagerses. Though he was in the centre, he was be : Xenoph. in exped. Cyr. i. i. p. 263-266. Diod. 1. xiv. p. 253, 254. Plut. o. 1014–1017. yond the left wing of the army of Cyrus; so much did the front of his own exceed that of the enemy in extent. A hundred and fifty chariots armed with scythes were placed in the front of the army, at some distance from one another. The scythes were fixed to the axle downwards and aslant, so as to cut down and overthrow all before them. As Cyrus relied very much on the valour and experience of the Greeks, he ordered Clearchus, as soon as he had beat the enemies in his front, to take care to incline to his left, and fall upon the centre where the king was posted; the success of the battle depending upon that attack. But Clearchus, finding it very difficult to make his way through so great a body of troops, replied that he need not be concerned but that he would take care to do what was necessary. The enemy in the mean time advanced slowly in good order; Cyrus marched in the space between the two armies, the nearest to his own, and considered both of them with great attention. Xenophon perceiving him, rode directly up to him, to know whether he had any farther orders to give. He called out to him that the sacrifices were favourable, and that he should tell the troops so. He then hastened through the ranks to give his orders, and showed himself to the soldiers with such a joy and serenity in his countenance, as inspired them with new courage, and at the same time with an air of kindness and familiarity that excited their zeal and affection. It is not easy to comprehend what great effects a word, a kind manner, or a look from a general, will have upon a day of action; and with what ardour a common man will rush into danger, when he believes himself not unknown to his general, and thinks his valour will oblige him. Artaxerxes moved on continually, though with a slow pace, and without noise and confusion. That good order and exact discipline extremely surprised the Greeks, who expected to see much hurry and tumult in so great a multitude, and to hear confused cries, as Cyrus had foretold them. The armies were not distant from each other more than four or five hundred paces, when the Greeks began to sing the hymn of battle, and to march on, slowly at first, and with silence. When they came near the enemy, they set up great cries, striking their darts upon their shields to frighten their horse; and then moved all together, they rushed forwards upon the barbarians with all their force, who did not wait their charge, but turned their backs, and fled universally, except Tissaphernes, who stood his ground with a small part of his troops. Cyrus saw with pleasure the enemy routed by the Greeks, and was proclaimed king by those around him. But he did not give himself up to a vain joy, nor as yet reckon himself victor. He perceived that Artaxerxes was wheeling his right to attack him in flank, and marched directly against him, with his six hundred horse. He, with his own hand, killed, Artagerses, who commanded the king's guards of six thousand horse and put the whole body to flight. Discovering his brother, he cried out with his eyes sparkling with rage, "I see him," and spurred against him, followed only by his principal officers; for his troops, had quitted their ranks to pursue the fugitives, which was an essential fault. The battle then became a single combat in some measure between Artaxerxes and Cyrus; and the two brothers were seen, transported with rage and fury, endeavouring, like Eteocles and Polynices, to plunge their swords into each other's hearts, and to assure themselves of the throne by the death of their rival.* Cyrus having opened his way through those who were drawn up in battle before Artaxerxes reached him, and killed his horse, that fell with him to the ground. He rose and was remounted upon another; when Cyrus attacked him again, gave him a second wound, and was preparing to give him a third, in hopes that it would prove his last. The king, like a lion wounded by the Diod. 1. xiv. p. 254. hunters, was only the more furious from the smart, and sprung forwards, impetuously pushing his horse against Cyrus, who, running headlong, and without regard to his person, threw himself into the midst of a volley of darts, aimed at him from all sides, and received a wound from the king's javelin ; at that instant all the rest discharged upon him. Cyrus fell dead; some say by the wound given him by the king; others affirm, that he was wounded by a Carian soldier. Mithridates, a young Persian nobleman, asserted that he had given him the mortal stroke with a javelin, which entered his temple, and pierced his head quite through. The greatest persons of his court, resolving not to survive so good a master, were all killed around his body; a certain proof, says Xenophon, that he well knew how to choose his friends, and that he was truly beloved by them. Ariæus, who ought to have been the firmest of all his adherents, fled with the left wing as soon as he heard of his death. Artaxerxes, after having caused the head and right hand of his brother to be cut off by the eunuch Mesabates, pursued the enemy into their camp. Ariæus had not stopped there; but having passed through it, continued his retreat to the place where the army had encamped the day before, which was about four leagues distant. Tissaphernes, after the defeat of the greatest part of his left wing by the Greeks, led on the rest against them, and by the side of the river, passed through the light armed infantry of the Greeks, who opened to give him passage, and charged him as he passed, without losing a man. They were commanded by Episthenes of Amphipolis, who was esteemed an able captain. Tissaphernes kept on without returning to the charge, because he perceived he was too weak, and went forward to the camp of Cyrus, where he found the king, who was plundering it; but had not been able to force the quarter defended by the Greeks left to guard it, who saved their baggage. The Greeks on their side, and Artaxerxes on his, who did not know what had passed elsewhere, each believed that they had gained the victory; the first because they had put the enemy to flight, and pursued them; and the king, because he had killed his brother, beat the troops he had fought, and plundered their camp. The event was soon cleared up on both sides. Tissaphernes, upon his arrival at the camp, informed the king, that the Greeks had defeated his left wing, and pursued it with great vigour; and the Greeks on their side learned that the king, in pursuing Cyrus's left, had penetrated into the camp. Upon this advice the king rallied his troops, and marched in quest of the enemy; and Clearchus being returned from pursuing the Persians, advanced to support the camp. The two armies were soon very near each other, when by a movement made by the king, he seemed to intend to charge the Greeks by their left, who, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled about, and halted with the river in their rear to prevent their being attacked in that direction. On seeing which, the king changed his form of battle also, drew up his army in front of them, and marched on to the attack. As soon as the Greeks saw him approach, they began to sing the hymn of battle, and advanced against the enemy even with more ardour than in the first action. The barbarians again retired farther than before, and were pursued to a village at the foot of a hill, upon which their horse halted. The king's standard was observed to be there, which was a golden eagle upon the top of a pike, having its wings displayed. The Greeks preparing to pursue them, they abandoned also the hill, fled precipitately, with their troops entirely broken, and in the utmost disorder and confusion. Clearchus, having drawn up the Greeks at the bottom of the hill, ordered Lysias the Syracusan and another to go up to it, and observe what passed in the plain. They returned with an account that the enemies fled on all sides, and their whole army was routed. As it was almost night, the Greeks laid down their arms to rest themselves, much surprised, that neither Cyrus nor any one from him appeared; and imagining that he was either engaged in the pursuit of the enemy, or was making haste to possess himself of some important place, for they were still ignorant of his death, and the defeat of the rest of his army, they determined therefore to return to their camp, and found the greatest part of the baggage taken, with all the provisions, and four hundred waggons laden with corn and wine, which Cyrus had expressly caused to be carried along with the army, for the Greeks, in case of any pressing necessity. They passed the night in the camp, the greatest part of them without any refreshment, concluding that Cyrus was alive and victorious. The success of this battle shows the superiority of valour and military knowledge over a multitude without them. The small army of the Greeks did not amount to more than twelve or thirteen thousand men; but they were veteran and disciplined troops, inured to fatigues, accustomed to confront dangers, sen sible to glory, and who, during the long Peloponnesian war, had not wanted cither time or means to acquire and complete themselves in the art of war, and the different orders of battle. The army of Artaxerxes was computed at a million of men; but they were soldiers only in name, without force, courage, discipline, experience, or any sense of honour. Hence it was, that as soon as the Greeks appeared, terror and disorder ensued among the enemy; and in the second action, Artaxerxes himself did not dare to wait their attack, but shamefully betook himself to flight. Plutarch here greatly blames Clearchus, the general of the Greeks, and imputes to him as an unpardonable neglect, his not having followed Cyrus's order, who recommended to him above all things to incline, and charge Artaxerxes in person. This reproach seems groundless. It is not easy to conceive, how it was possible for that captain, who was posted on the right wing, to attack Artaxerxes immediately, who, in the centre of his own army, lay beyond the utmost extent of the enemy's left, as has been said before. It seems that Cyrus, depending as he did with great reason upon the valour of the Greeks, and desiring they should charge Artaxerxes in his post, ought to have placed them in the left wing, which was directly opposite where the king was posted; that is to the main body, and not in the right, which was very remote from it. Clearchus may indeed be reproached with having followed the pursuit too warmly and too long. If, after having thrown the left wing, which opposed him, into disorder, he had charged the rest of the enemy in flank, and had opened his way to the centre, where Artaxerxes was, it is highly probable that he had gained a complete victory, and placed Cyrus upon the throne. six hundred horse of that prince's guard committed the same fault; and by pursuing the body of troops they had put to flight too eagerly, left their master almost alone, and abandoned to the mercy of the enemy; without considering, that they were chosen from the whole army for the immediate guard of his person, and for no other purpose whatever. Too much ardour is often prejudicial in a battle; and it is the duty of an able general to know how to restrain and direct it. The Cyrus himself erred highly in this respect, and abandoned himself too much to his blind passion for glory and revenge. In running headlong to attack his brother, he forgot that there is a wide difference between a general and a private soldier. He ought not to have exposed himself, but as it was consistent with a prince; as the head, not the hand; as the person who was to give orders, and not as those who were to execute them. I speak in this manner after judges in the art of war; and would not choose to advance my own opinion upon things out of my sphere. SECTION III.-EULOGY OF CYRUS. XENOPHON gives us a magnificent character of Cyrus; and that, not upon the credit of others, but from what he saw and knew of him in his own person. "He was," says he," in the opinion of all who were acquainted with him, after Cyrus the Great, a prince the most worthy of the supreme authority, and had the most noble and most truly royal soul. From his infancy he surpassed |