were thought to disapprove of even the most extreme acts he might be summoned before a tribunal of the people where injustice rather than justice was administered. A man's fate was determined before he was heard. The "law of suspects" made many liable. Any one who was of noble birth or had held any office before the year 1789, or had any connection of blood or service to an émigré, any one who could not show immediately that he had done something to further the cause of the revolution, any one who was dissatisfied with the course affairs had taken-all these were liable to arrest at any moment.

In recent works bearing upon this period of French history it has been repeatedly pointed out that the earlier habit of viewing the revolution as one great era of bloodshed and slaughter was erroneous. That terrible crimes were committed in the name of liberty, as Madame Roland exclaimed, is indisputable; that mob rule prevailed at certain times with all its attendant slaughter is true. But that was not the revolution; the revolution was the complete political change that was brought about in France so effectually that no subsequent reaction was able to reinstate the old régime. This was a tremendous social convulsion and, while marred by much unnecessary crime, should not be identified with the crime itself. With the fall of the king the Girondists soon lost their power, for they had failed to supply an efficient government. Their leaders were summarily dispatched, while the way was left open for Robespierre and his compeers. The guillotine worked busily day and night, till even contemporary journalism grew weary of the bloody scenes and printed a cartoon of Robespierre guillotining the last man.

During this period of confusion the queen was beheaded. Her fate had been evident from the first, for many who loved their country felt bitter toward one who was willing to see it invaded by a foreign army. Each time new proscriptions were begun in Paris they spread into the provinces as well, and terror reigned everywhere. Finally, the Convention outlawed Robespierre and his followers and the reign of terror came to an end.

After a year's trial the constitution of 1791 had been found lacking and now a convention was summoned to frame a

new one. In 1795 its preparation was completed. When once again the mobs began to form for the purpose of gaining the upper hand, the Convention ordered young Napoleon Bonaparte to preserve peace. A volley of shots poured in the midst of the insurgents quelled the uprising, and the first period of the French Revolution was ended.

CHAPTER V.

GOVERNMENT OF THE DIRECTORY-OCTOBER, 1795-
NOVEMBER, 1799.

The new constitution ready for trial in 1795 vested the executive power in a Directory-a board of five men. The legislative power was given to the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. The Directory inaugurated an aggressive foreign policy for the purpose of spreading abroad those principles already established at home: liberty and equality for men. Monarchies were to be overthrown; monarchs, whether limited or absolute, to be set aside. Republics, providing for government by the people, were to be set up after the example of the French republic.

Everywhere men were full of enthusiasm for the new doctrines, promulgated so successfully by the French at home, and those held down by firm rule felt that the time of deliverance was at hand. Already they had been won to the ideas of the revolution, and as Hugo wrote: "An invasion of armies can be resisted; an invasion of ideas cannot be resisted." Because the countries of Europe were ready for it, this revolution spread rapidly. The French armies were hailed as deliverers from oppression.

England and Austria had been the two strong nations to refuse to recognize the new republic; consequently the first efforts were directed against them. Napoleon took part of the army and marched into Italy to strike a blow to Austria. His address to his soldiers before the passage of the Alps is well known. In it he dwelt less upon the grandeur of ideas for which France was fighting than upon the opportunity open for plunder. This was one of the first indications of that Napoleonic spirit which was to transform a noble undertaking, made in behalf of humanity, into something sordid and intensely selfish.

The Austrians suffered repeated defeats and were driven out of Northern Italy, which was organized as the Cisalpine Republic. As Napoleon marched toward Vienna the Em

peror of Austria sued for peace and the treaty of Campo Formio was negotiated, October, 1797. By this treaty Austria acknowledged the loss of Northern Italy, recognized the Rhine as the eastern boundary of France and ceded the Belgium provinces to the French Republic.

Upon this signal victory Napoleon hastened home, where he was welcomed by such an ovation as recalled the triumph of a Roman general. Nevertheless, members of the Directory could not get the young conqueror out of France too quickly, and proposed that he should now strike a blow at England, suggesting an invasion of the island. Napoleon saw at once what should be done and rapidly indicated a campaign in Egypt, for the purpose of acquiring this territory from the English and interfering with the eastern trade. England would be seriously crippled should she be cut off from the trade of the orient.

In a remarkably short time Napoleon had plunged into Egypt and won the battle of the Pyramids, after which Lower Egypt fell into his control and the trade with the East was effectively controlled. Yet even at the time of triumph, news came that Nelson had won the naval battle of the Nile and had destroyed the French fleet.

In the spring of 1799 the Turks sent an army to re-take Egypt. Thereupon Napoleon took his army into Western Asia and seized Gaza and Jaffa. Acre held out against him. Turning back, in Egypt he again won a great victory.

Meanwhile his generals had been accomplishing considerable in Europe. A republic had been set up at Rome, known as the Tiberine Republic; Switzerland had been converted into the Helvetian Republic; Naples, into the Parthenopean Republic.

Early in 1799 the powers of Europe formed a coalition against France. Italy was quickly recovered. These defeats brought the Directory into disfavor. It was said that Napoleon had been sent away against his judgment; unrest began to manifest itself and the royalists began to talk of a recovered kingdom. Napoleon suddenly appeared in Paris; the Directors accused him of intending to overthrow the government. He, now master of France, drove them from the council chamber, and thus ended the second period of the revolution.

THE CONSULATE—1799-1804.

A fourth constitution was now drawn up, this time vesting the executive power in three consuls, elected for ten years. One was to possess supreme power; the other two were to confer with him. It is needless to say that Napoleon was to be First Consul. France was in name still a republic; in fact it was the kind of republic Rome had been under Augustus Cæsar. Local self-government was abolished and all was made to depend upon the Consul.

Napoleon now wanted peace, but both England and Austria refused to consider it. England was dominated by intense jealousy of the trade thrown in favor of France by the ceding of Austria's Belgian provinces by the treaty of Campo Formio. Having no choice, Napoleon made forced marches to Italy and immediately won back the north, which was again organized as the Cisalpine Republic. On the same day the French army in Egypt surrendered to the English.

By the battle of Marengo, Napoleon's army opened the way to Vienna and the Austrian Emperor was forced to sign the Peace of Lunéville, February, 1801. England shortly made the Peace of Amiens, colonial possessions being the point at issue.

Napoleon then turned his attention to home affairs and brought about many reforms for which he is now remembered. He made overtures to the royalists and 40,000 royal families returned to France. By the Concordat he reconciled the clergy and won the support of the devout Catholic element. Roads were repaired, public buildings erected. Education was carefully supervised and, probably most important of all, the Napoleonic Code was compiled. This was such a systematic arrangement and classification of the laws of the land as had been undertaken long before by Justinian.

In 1802 Napoleon was made Consul for life-that he might the better carry out his policy of reform. Directly after, he created the Legion of Honor, an order brought into being to replace in a way the old feudal aristocracy. Membership therein was based upon distinction won in service, either military or civil. There were many who murmured. at the rise of social distinctions, swept away by the revolution.