plished, enterprising, and victorious of the Turkish princes, and a constant and formidable rival to the emperor, ascended the Ottoman throne.

From the inauguration of Charles V. as emperor to his death.-The first act of Charles's administration was to appoint a diet of the empire, to be held at Worms, to concert with the princes proper measures for checking the progress of those new and dangerous opinions which threatened to disturb the peace of Germany, and to overturn the religion of their ancestors.' The opinions propagated by Luther and his followers were here meant. But all his efforts for that purpose were insufficient, as is related under the articles LUTHER and REFORMATION. In 1521 the Spaniards, dissatisfied with the departure of their sovereign, whose election to the empire they foresaw would interfere with the administration of his own kingdom, and incensed at the avarice of the Flemings, to whom the direction of public affairs had been committed since the death of cardinal Ximenes, several grandees, to shake off this oppression, entered into an association, to which they gave the name of the sancta juncta; and the sword was appealed to as the means of redress. This seemed to Francis a favorable juncture for reinstating the family of John d'Albret in the kingdom of Navarre. Charles was at a distance from that part of his dominions, and the troops usually stationed there had been called away to quell the commotions in Spain. A French army, under Andrew de Foix, speedily conquered Navarre; but that young and inexperienced nobleman, pushed on by military ardor, ventured to enter Castile. The Spaniards, though divided among themselves, united against a foreign enemy, routed his forces, took him prisoner, and recovered Navarre in a shorter time than he had spent in subduing it. Hostilities thus begun in one quarter, between the rival monarchs, soon spread to another. The king of France encouraged the duke of Bouillon to make war against the emperor, and to invade Luxemburgh. Charles, after humbling the duke, attempted to enter France; but was repelled and worsted before Mezieres by the famous chevalier Bayard, distinguished among his contemporaries by the appellation of the knight without fear and without reproach;' and who united the talents of a great general to the punctilious honor and romantic gallantry of the heroes of chivalry. Francis broke into the Low Countries, where, by an excess of caution, an error not natural to him, he lost an opportunity of cutting off the whole of the imperial army; and, what was of still more consequence, he disgusted the constable Bourbon, by giving the command of the van to the duke of Alençon. During these operations in the field an unsuccessful congress was held at Calais, under the mediation of Henry VIII. It served only to exasperate the parties whom it was intended to reconcile. A league was soon after concluded by the intrigues of Wolsey, between the pope, Henry, and Charles, against France. Leo had already entered into a separate league with the emperor, and the French were fast losing ground in Italy. The insolence and exactions of marshal de Lautrec, governor of Milan, had totally alienated

the affections of the Milanese from France. They resolved to expel the troops of that nation, and put themselves under the government of Francis Sforza, brother to Maximilian their late duke. In this resolution they were encouraged by the pope, who excommunicated Lautrec, and took into his pay a considerable body of Swiss. The papal army, commanded by Prosper Colonna, an experienced general, was joined by supplies from Germany and Naples; while Lautrec, neglected by his court, and deserted by the Swiss in its pay, was unable to make head against the enemy. The city of Milan was betrayed by the inhabitants to the confederates; Parma and Placentia were united to the ecclesiastical state; and of their conquests in Lombardy only the town of Cremona, the castle of Milan, and a few inconsiderable forts, remained in the hands of the French. Leo X. received the accounts of his rapid success with such transports of joy as are said to have brought on a fever, which occasioned his death. The spirit of the confederacy was broken, and its operations suspended by this event. The Swiss were recalled; some other mercenaries disbanded for want of pay; and only the Spaniards, and a few Germans in the emperor's service, remained to defend the duchy of Milan. But Lautrec, who with the remnant of his army had taken shelter in the Venetian territories, destitute both of men and money, was unable to improve this favorable opportunity as he wished. All his efforts were rendered ineffectual by the vigilance and ability of Colonna and his associates. Meantime much discord prevailed in the conclave. Wolsey's name, notwithstanding all the emperor's magnificent promises, was scarcely mentioned there. Julio de Medici, Leo's nephew, thought himself sure of the election; when, by an unexpected turn of fortune, cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, Charles's preceptor, who at that time governed Spain in the emperor's name, was unanimously raised to the papacy, to the astonishment of all Europe, and the greatest disgust of the Italians. Francis, roused by the rising consequence of his rival. resolved to exert himself with fresh vigor, to wrest from him his late conquests in Lombardy. Lautrec received a supply of money, and a reinforcement of 10,000 Swiss. With this reinforcement he was enabled once more to act offensively, and even to advance within a few miles of Milan; when money again failing him, and the Swiss growing mutinous, he was obliged to attack the imperialists in their camp at Bicocca, where he was repulsed with great slaughter, having lost his bravest officers and best troops. Such of the Swiss as survived set out immediately for their own country; and Lautrec, despairing of being able to keep the field, retired into France. Genoa, which still remained subject to Francis and made it easy to execute any scheme for the recovery of Milan, was soon after taken by Colonna; the authority of the emperor and his faction was every where established in Italy. The citadel of Cremona was the sole fortress which remained in the hands of the French. The affliction of Francis for such a succession of misfortunes was augmented by the unexpected arrival of an English herald, who in the

name of his sovereign declared war against France. The courage of this excellent prince, however, did not forsake him; though this treasury was exhausted by expensive pleasures, no less than by hostile enterprises, he assembled a considerable army, and put his kingdom in a state of defence for resisting this new enemy, without abandoning any of the schemes which he was forming against the emperor. He was surprised, but not alarmed, at such a denunciation. Meanwhile Charles, willing to draw as much advantage as possible from so powerful an ally, paid a second visit to the court of England in his way to Spain, where his presence was become necessary. His success exceeded his most sanguine expectations. He not only gained the entire friendship of Henry, who publicly ratified the treaty of Burges; but disarmed the resentment of Wolsey, by assuring him of the papacy on Adrian's death; an event seemingly not distant, by reason of his age and infirmities. In consequence of these negociations an English army invaded France, under the earl of Surrey; who, at the end of the campaign, was obliged to retire, with his forces greatly reduced, without being able to make himself master of one place within the French frontier. Charles was more fortunate in Spain; he soon quelled the tumults which had arisen there in his absence. While the Christian princes were thus wasting each other's strength, Solyman entered Hungary, and made himself master of Belgrade, reckoned the chief barrier of that kingdom against the Turkish power. Encouraged by this success, he turned his victorious arms against the island of Rhodes, at that time the seat of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem; and, though every prince in that age acknowledged Rhodes to be the great bulwark of Christendom in the east, so violent was their animosity against each other, that they suffered Soliman without disturbance to carry on his operations against that city and island. Lisle Adam, the grand master, made a gallant defence; but after incredible efforts of courage, patience, and military conduct, during a siege of six months, he was obliged to surrender the place, having obtained an honor able capitulation from the sultan, who admired and respected his heroic qualities. See RHODES and MALTA. Charles and Francis were equally ashamed of having occasioned such a loss to Christendom by their contests; and the emperor, by way of reparation, granted to the knights of St. John the island of Malta, where they fixed their residence, and continued long to retain their ancient spirit, though much diminished in power and splendor. Adrian VI. though the creature of the emperor, and devoted to his interest, endeavoured to assume the impartiality which became the common father of Christendom, and labored to reconcile the contending princes, that they might unite in a league against Soliman, whose conquest of Rhodes rendered him more formidable than ever to Eu

rope. The Italian states were no less desirous of peace than the pope; and so much regard was paid by the hostile powers to the exhortations of his holiness, and to a bull which he is sued, requiring all Christian princes to consent

to a truce for three years, that the imperial, the French, and the English ambassadors at Rome, were empowered to treat of that matter; but, while they wasted their time in fruitless negociations, their masters were continuing their preparations for war; and negociations of another kind soon took place. The confederacy against France became more formidable than ever. The Venetians, who had hitherto adhered to the French interest, formed engagements with the emperor for securing Francis Sforza in the pos session of the duchy of Milan; and the pope, from a persuasion that the ambition of the French monarch was the only obstacle to peace, acceded to the same alliance. The Florentines, the dukes of Ferrara and Mantua, and all the Italian powers, followed this example. Francis was left without a single ally, to resist the efforts of a multitude of enemies, whose armies every where threatened, and whose territories encompassed his dominions. The emperor in person menaced France with an invasion on the side of Guienne; the forces of England and the Netherlands hovered over Picardy, and a numerous body of Germans was preparing to ravage Burgundy. The dread of so many and such powerful adversaries, it was thought, would have obliged Francis to keep wholly on the defensive, or at least have prevented him from entertaining any thoughts of marching into Italy. But, before his enemies were able to strike a blow, Francis had assembled a great army, with which he hoped to disconcert all the emperor's schemes, by marching it in person into Italy; and this bold measure, the more formidable because unexpected, could scarcely have failed of the desired effect, had it been immediately carried into execution. But the discovery of a domestic conspiracy, which threatened the destruction of his kingdom, obliged Francis to stop short at Lyons. Charles duke of Bourbon, lord high constable of France, was a prince of the most shining merit; his great talents equally fitted him for the council or the field, while his eminent services to the crown entitled him to its first favor. But unhappily, Louisa, duchess of Augouleme, the king's mother, had contracted a violent aversion against the house of Bourbon, and had taught her son, over whom she had acquired an absolute ascendant, to view all the constable's actions with a jealous eye. After repeated affronts he retired from court, and began to listen to the advances of the emperor's ministers. Mean time the duchess of Bourbon died; and, as the constable was no less amiable than accomplished, the duchess of Angouleme, still susceptible of the tender passions, formed the scheme of marrying him. But Bourbon, who might have expected every thing to which an ambitious mind can aspire, from the doating fondness of a woman who governed her son and the kingdom, incapable of imitating Louisa in her sudden transition from hate to love, or of meanly counterfeiting a passion for one who had so long pursued him with unprovoked malice, rejected the match with disdain, and turned the proposal into ridicule. At once despised and insulted, by the man whom love only could have made her cease to persecute, Louisa was filled with all the rage of disap

pointed woman; she resolved to ruin, since she should not marry, Bourbon. For this purpose she commenced an iniquitous suit against him; and, by the chicanery of chancellor du Prat, the constable was stripped of his whole family estate. Driven to despair by so many injuries, he entered into a secret correspondence with the emperor and the king of England; and he proposed, as soon as Francis should have crossed the Aips, to raise an insurrection among his numer ous vassals, and introduce foreign enemies into the heart of France. Happily Francis got intimation of this conspiracy before he left the kingdom; but, not being sufficiently convinced of the constable's guilt, he suffered so dangerous a foe to escape; and, Bourbon entering into the emperor's service, employed all the force of his enterprising genius, and his great talents for war, to the prejudice of his prince and his native country. In consequence of the discovery of this plot, and the escape of the powerful conspirator, Francis relinquished his intention of leading his army in person into Italy. He was ignorant how far the infection had spread among his subjects, and afraid that his absence might encourage them to make some desperate attempt in favor of a man so much beloved. He did not, however, abandon his design on the Milanese, but sent forward an army of 30,000 men, under the command of admiral Bonnivet. Colonna, who was entrusted with the defence of that duchy, was in no condition to resist such a force; and the city of Milan, on which the whole territory depends, must have fallen into the hands of the French, had not Bonnivet, who possessed hone of the talents of a general, wasted his time in frivolous enterprises, till the inhabitants recovered from their consternation. The imperial army was reinforced. Colonna died; and Lannny, viceroy of Naples, succeeded him in the command; but the chief direction of military operations was committed to Bourbon and the marquis de Pescara, the greatest generals of their age. Bonnivet, destitute of troops to oppose this new army, and still more of the talents which could render him a match for its leaders. after various movements and encounters, was reduced to the necessity of attempting a retreat into France. He was followed by the imperial generals, and routed at Biagrassa, where the famous chevalier Bayard was killed. The emperor and his allies were less successful in their attempts upon France. They were baffled in every quarter; and Francis, though stripped of his Italian dominions, might still have enjoyed in safety the glory of having defended his native kingdom against one half of Europe, and have bid defiance to all his enemies: but understanding that the king of England, discouraged by his former fruitless enterprises, and disgusted with the emperor, was making no preparations for an attempt on Picardy, his ancient ardor seized him for the conquest of Milan, and he determined, notwithstanding the advanced season, to march into Italy. The French army no sooner appeared in Piedmont, than the whole Milanese was thrown into consternation. The capital opened its gates. The forces of the emperor and Sforza retired to Lodi; and, had Francis been so for

tunate as to pursue them, they must have abandoned that post, and been totally dispersed ; but his evil genius led him to besiege Pavia, a town of considerable strength, well garrisoned, and defended by Antonio de Leyva, one of the bravest officers in the Spanish service; before which place he was defeated and taken prisoner on the 24th of February 1524.

The captivity of Francis filled all Europe with alarm. Almost the whole French army was cut off; Milan was immediately abandoned; and in a few weeks not a Frenchman was left in Italy. The power of the emperor, and still more his ambition, became an object of universal terror; and resolutions were every where taken to set bounds to it. Meanwhile Francis, deeply impressed with a sense of his misfortunes, wrote to his mother Louisa, whom he had left regent of the kingdom, the following short but expressive letter:-All, madam, is lost but honor.' The same courier that carried this letter, carried also despatches to Charles; who received the news of the signal and unexpected success which had crowned his arms with the most hypocritical moderation. He would not suffer any public rejoicings to be made on account of it; and said, he only valued it as it would prove the occasion of restoring peace to Christendom. Louisa, however, did not trust to these appearances; if she could not preserve what was yet left, she determined at least that nothing should be lost through her negligence or weakness. Instead of giving herself up to such lamentations as were natural to a woman so remarkable for maternal tenderness, she discovered all the foresight, and exerted all the activity of a consummate politician. She took every possible measure for putting the kingdom in a posture of defence, while she employed all her address to appease the resentment and to gain the friendship of England; and a ray of comfort from that quarter soon broke in upon the French affairs. Though Henry VIII. had not entered into the war against France from any concerted political views, he had always retained some imperfect idea of that balance of power which it was necessary to maintain between Charles and Francis; and the preservation of which he boasted to be his peculiar office. By this alliance with the emperor he hoped to recover some part of those territories on the continent which had belonged to his ancestors; and therefore willingly contributed to give him the ascendoncy above his rival; but having never dreamt of any event so decisive and fatal as the victory of Pavia, which seemed not only to have broken, but to have annihilated the power of Francis, he now became sensible of his own danger, as well as that of all Europe, from the loss of a proper counterpoise to the power of Charles. Instead of taking advantage of the distressed condition at France, Henry therefore determined to assist her in her present calami. ties. Some disgusts had also taken place between him and Charles, and still more between Charles and Wolsey. The elevation of the cardinal of Medicis to St. Peter's chair, on the death of Adrian, under the name of Clement VII., had made the English minister sensible of the insincerity of the emperor's promises, while it extin

guished all his hopes of the papacy; and he resolved on revenge. Charles, too, had so ill supported the appearance of moderation which he assumed, that he had already changed his usual style to Henry; and, instead of writing to him with his own hand, he dictated his letters to a secretary, and simply subscribed 'Charles.' Influenced by all these motives, together with the glory of raising a fallen enemy, Henry listened to the flattering submissions of Louisa; entered into a defensive alliance with her as regent of France, and engaged to use his best offices to procure the deliverance of her son from captivity. Meanwhile Francis was rigorously confined; and severe conditions being proposed to him as the price of his liberty, he drew his dagger, and, pointing it at his breast, cried, "Twere better that a king should die thus!' His hand was withheld; and flattering himself, when he grew cool, that such propositions could not come directly from Charles, he desired that he might be removed to Spain, where the emperor then resided. His request was complied with; but he languished long before he obtained a sight of his conqueror. At last he was favored with a visit; and the emperor, dreading a general combination against him, or that Francis, as he threatened, might in obstinacy resign his crown to the dauphin, agreed to abate somewhat of his former demands. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Madrid; in consequence of which Francis obtained his liberty. The chief article was, that Burgundy should be restored to Charles as the rightful inheritance of his ancestors, and that Francis's two eldest sons should be immediately delivered up as hostages for the performance of the conditions stipulated. The exchange of the captive monarch for his children was made on the borders between France and Spain. The moment that Francis entered his own dominions, he mounted a Turkish horse, and, putting it to its speed, waved his hand and cried aloud several times, I am yet a king! I am yet a king!'

Francis never meant to execute the treaty of Madrid he had even left a protest in the hauds of notaries before he signed it, that his consent should be considered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and void. Accordingly, as soon as he arrived in France, he assembled the states of Burgundy, who protested against the article relative to their province; and Francis coldly replied to the imperial ambassadors, who urged the immediate execution of the treaty, that he would religiously perform the articles relative to himself, but, in those affecting the French monarchy, he must be directed by the sense of the nation. He made the highest acknowledgments to the king of England for his friendly interposition, and offered to be entirely guided by his counsels. Charles and his ministers saw that they were over-reached in those very arts of negociation in which they so much excelled, while the Italian states observed with pleasure that Francis was resolved not to execute a treaty which they considered as dangerous to the liberties of Europe. Clement absolved him from the oath which he had taken at Madrid; and the kings of France and England, the pope, the Swiss, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the

duke of Milan, entered into an alliance, to which they gave the name of the Holy League, because his holiness was at the head of it, in order to oblige the emperor to deliver up Francis's two sons on the payment of a reasonable ransom, and to re-establish Sforsa in the quiet possession of the Milanese. In consequence of this league the confederate army took the field, and Italy once more became the scene of war. But Francis, who it was thought would have infused spirit and vigor into the whole body, had gone through such a scene of distress that he was become diffident of himself, distrustful of his fortune, and desirous of tranquillity. He flattered himself that the dread alone of such a confederacy would induce Charles to listen to what was equitable, and therefore neglected to send due reinforce ments to his allies in Italy. Meantime the duke of Bourbon, who commanded the imperialists, had made himself master of the whole Milanese, of which the emperor had promised him the investiture; and his troops beginning to mutiny, for want of pay, he led them to Rome, and promised to enrich them with the spoils of that city. He was as good as his word; for, though he himself was slain in planting a scaling ladder against the walls, his soldiers, rather enraged than discouraged by his death, mounted to the assault with the utmost ardor, animated by the greatness of the prize, and, entering the city sword in hand, plundered it for several days. Never did Rome in any age suffer so many calamities, not even from the Barbarians, by whom she was often subdued, the Huns, Vandals, or Goths, as now from the subjects of a Christian and Catholic monarch. Whatever was respectable in modesty, or sacred in religion, seemed only the more to provoke the rage of the soldiery. Virgins suf fered violation in the arms of their parents, and upon those altars to which they had fled for safety! Venerable prelates, after enduring every indignity and every torture, were thrown into dungeons, and menaced with the most cruel death, to make them reveal their secret treasures. Clement himself, who had neglected to make his escape in time, was taken prisoner, and found that the sacredness of his character could neither procure him liberty nor respect. He was confined till he should pay an enormous ransom imposed by the victorious army, and surrender to the emperor all the places of strength belonging to the church. Charles received the news of this extraordinary event with equal surprise and pleasure; but to conceal his joy from his Spanish subjects, who were filled with horror at the insult offered to the sovereign pontiff, and to lessen the indignation of the rest of Europe, he expressed the most profound sorrow for the success of his arms. He put himself and his court into mourn ing; stopped the rejoicings for the birth of his son Philip, and ordered prayers to be put up in all the churches of Spain for the recovery of the pope's liberty, which he could immediately have given him by a letter to his generals.

The concern expressed by Henry and Francis for the calamity of their ally was more sincere. Alarmed at the progress of the imperial arms, they had, even before the taking of Rome, entered into a closer alliance, and agreed to invade

the low countries with a powerful army; but no sooner did they hear of the pope's captivity than they changed, by a new treaty, the scene of the projected war from the Netherlands to Italy, and resolved to take the most vigorous measures for restoring him to liberty. Henry, however, contributed only money. A French army entered Italy under the command of marshal Lautrec; Clement obtained his freedom; and war was for a time carried on by the confederates with success; but the death of Lautrec, and the revolt of Andrew Doria, a famous Genoese admiral in the service of France, entirely changed the face of affairs. The French army was utterly ruined; and Francis, discouraged and almost exhausted by so many unsuccessful enterprises, began to think of peace, and of obtaining the release of his sons by concessions, not by the terror of his arms. At the same time Charles, notwithstanding the advantages he had gained, had many reasons to wish for an accommodation. Sultan Soliman, having over-run Hungary, was ready to break in upon the Austrian territories with the whole force of the east; and the progress of the Reformation in Germany threatened the tranquillity of the empire. In consequence of this situation of affairs, though pride made both parties conceal or dissemble their real sentiments, two ladies were permitted to restore peace to Europe. Margaret of Austria, Charles's aunt, and Louisa, Francis's mother, met in 1529 at Cambray, and settled the terms of accommodation between the French king and the emperor. Francis agreed to pay 2,000,000 crowns as the ransom of his two sons, to resign the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and to forego all his Italian claims; and Charles ceased to demand the restitution of Burgundy. All the steps of this negociation had been communicated to the king of Englan1; and Henry was, on that occasion, so generous to his friend and ally Francis that he sent him an acquittal of nearly 600,000 crowns in order to enable him to fulfil his agreement with Charles. But Francis's Italian confederates were less satisfied with the treaty of Cambray. They were almost wholly abandoned to the will of the emperor; and seemed to have no other means of security left but his equity and moderation. Of these, from his past conduct, they had not formed the most advantageous idea. But Charles's circumstances, especially in regard to the Turks, obliged him to behave with a generosity inconsistent with his character. The Florentines alone, whom he reduced under the dominion of the family of Medicis, had reason to complain of his severity. Sforza obtained the investiture of Milan and his pardon; and every other power experienced the lenity of the conqueror. After having received the imperial crown, from the hands of the pope at Bologna, Charles proceeded on his journey to Germany, where his presence was become highly necessary; for although the conduct and valor of his brother Ferdinand, on whom he had conferred the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria, and who had been elected king of Hungary, had obliged Soliman to retire with infamy and loss, his return was to be feared, and the disorders of religion were daily increasing; an account of which, and of the em

peror's transactions with the Protestants, is given under the article REFORMATION. Charles, having exerted himself as much as he could against the reformers, undertook his first expedition against the piratical states of Africa. Barbary, or that part of the African continent lying along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, was then nearly in the same condition which it is at present. Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, were its principal states; and the last two were nests of pirates. Barbarossa, a famous Corsair, had succeeded his brother in the kingdom of Algiers, which he had formerly assisted him to usurp. He regulated with much prudence the interior police of his kingdom, carried on his piracies with great vigor, and extended his conquests on the continent of Africa; but perceiving that the natives submitted to his government with impatience, and fearing that his continual depredations would one day draw upon him a general combination of the Christian powers, he put his dominions under the protection of the grand signior. Soliman, flattered by such an act of submission, and charmed with the boldness of the man, offered him the command of the Turkish fleet. Proud of this distinction, Barbarossa repaired to Constantinople, and made use of his influence with the sultan to extend his own dominion. Partly by force, partly by treachery, he usurped the kingdom of Tunis; and, being now possessed of greater power, he carried on his depredations against the Christian states with more destructive violence than ever. Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages committed by the galleys of Barbarossa were brought to the emperor by his subjects, both in Spain and Italy; and all Christendom seemed to look up to him, as its greatest and most fortunate prince, for relief from this new and odious species of oppression. At the same time Muley Hassen, the exiled king of Tunis, finding none of the African princes able or willing to support him in recovering his throne, applied to Charles for assistance against the usurper. Equally desirous of delivering his dominions from the dangerous neighbourhood of Barbarossa, of appearing as the protector of an unfortunate prince, and of acquiring the glory annexed in that age to every expedition against the Mahometans, the emperor readily concluded a treaty with Muley Hassen, and set sail for Tunis with a formidable armament. The Goletta, a sea-port town fortified with 300 pieces of cannon, was taken, together with all Barbarossa's fleet: he was defeated in a pitched battle; and, 10,000 Christian slaves having knocked off their fetters and made themselves masters of the citadel. Tunis was preparing to surrender. But, while Charles was deliberating on the conditions, his troops, fearing that they would be deprived of the booty which they had! expected, broke suddenly into the town, and pillaged and massacred without distinction: 30,000 persons perished by the sword, and 10,000 were made prisoners. The sceptre was restored to Muley Hassen, on condition that he should acknowledge himself a vassal of the crown of Spain, put into the emperor's hands all the fortified sea-ports in the kingdom of Tunis, and pay annually 12,000 crowns for the subsistence