the navy, not to be opened till they should arrive in a certain latitude. It was on this occasion, says our historian Guthrie, that we meet with the first regular set of signals and orders to the commanders of the English fleet.' But, till the movements of a fleet have attained some sort of uniformity, regulated and connected by some principles of propriety, and agreed on by persons in the habit of directing a number of ships, we may with confidence affirm that signals would be nothing but a parcel of arbitrary marks, appropriated to particular pieces of naval service, such as attacking the enemy, landing the soldiers, &c., and that they would be considered merely as referring to the final result, but by no means pointing out the mode of execution, or directing the movements which were necessary for performing it. It was James II., when duke of York, who first considered this practice as capable of being reduced into a system, and who saw the importance of such a composition. He, as well as the king his brother, had always showed a great predilection for the sea service; and, when appointed admiral of England, he turned his whole attention to its improvement. He had studied the art of war under Turenne, not as a pastime, but as a science, and was a favorite pupil of that most accomplished general. When admiral of England, he endeavoured to introduce into the maritime service all those principles of concert and arrangement which made a number of individual regiments and squadrons compose a great army. When he commanded in the Dutch war, he found a fleet to be little better than a collection of ships, on board of each of which the commander and his ship's company did their best to annoy the enemy, but with very little dependence on each other, or on the orders of the general: and, in the different actions which the English fleet had with the Dutch, every thing was confusion as soon as the battle began. The famous pensionary De Witt, who from a statesman became a navigator and a great sea commander in a few weeks, made the same representation to the States General on his return from his first campaign. In the Memoirs of James II., written by himself, we have the following passage: 1665. On the 15th of March the duke of York went to Gunfleet, the general rendezvous of the fleet, and hastened their equipment. He ordered all the flag officers on board with him every morning, to agree on the order of battle and rank. In former battles, no order was kept, and this, under the duke of York, was the first in which fighting in a line and regular form of battle was observed.' This must be considered as full authority for giving the duke of York the honor of the invention. For, whatever faults may be laid to the charge of this unfortunate prince, his word and honor stand unimpeached, and we are anxious to vindicate his claim to it, because our neighbours the French, as usual, would take the merit of this invention, and of the whole of naval tactics, to themselves. True it is that Colbert, the great and justly celebrated minister of Louis XIV., created a navy for his ambitious and vain-glorious master, and gave it a constitution which may be a model for other uations to copy. By his encouragement, men of VOL XX.

the greatest scientific eminence were engaged to contribute to its improvement; and they gave us the first treatises of naval evolutions. But it must ever be remembered that our accomplished, though misguided sovereign, was then residing at the court of Louis; that he had formerly acted in concert with the French as commander and flag officer, and was at this time aiding them with his knowledge of sea affairs. In the memorable day of La Hogue, the gallant Russel, observing one of Tourville's movements, exclaimed, 'there! they have got Pepys among them.' It was on this occasion, then, that the duke of York made the movements and evolutions of a fleet the object of his particular study, reduced them to a system, and composed that System of Sailing and Fighting Instructions' which has ever since been considered as the code of discipline for the British navy, and which has been adopted by our rivals and neighbours as the foundation of their naval tactics. It does great honor to its author, although its merit will not appear very eminent to a careless surveyor, on account of that very simplicity which constitutes its chief excellence. It is unquestionably the result of much sagacious reflection and painful combination of innumerable circumstances, all of which have their influence; and it is remarkable that, although succeeding commanders have improved the subject by several subordinate additions, no change has to this day been made in its general principles or maxims of evolution. Till some such code be established, it is evident that signals can be nothing but arbitrary and unconnected hieroglyphics, to be learned by rote, and retained by memory, without any exercise of the judgment; and the acquisition of this branch of nautical skill must be a more irksome task than that of learning the Chinese writing. But, such a code being once settled, the character in which it may be expressed becomes a matter of rational discussion. Accordingly, the sailing and fighting instructious of the duke of York were accompanied by a set of signals for directing the chief or most frequent movements of the fleet. These also were contrived with so much judgment, and such attention to distinctness, simplicity, and propriety, that there has hardly been any change found necessary; and they are still retained in the British navy as the usual signals in all cases when we are not anxious to conceal our movements from an enemy. Notwithstanding this acknowledged merit of the duke of York's signals, it must be admitted that great improvements have been made on this subject, considered as an art. The art military has, in the course of a century past, become almost an appropriate calling, and has therefore been made the peculiar study of its professors. Our rivals, the French, were sooner, and more formally placed in this situation, and the ministers of Louis XIV. took infinite and most judicious pains to make their military men superior to all others by their academical education. A more scientific turn was given to their education, and the assistance of scientific men was liberally given them; and all the nations of Europe must acknowledge some obligations to them for information on every thing connected with the art of war. They

Y

have attended very much to this subject, have greatly improved it, and have even introduced a new principle into the art; and thus have reduced it to the most simple form of reference to the code of sailing and fighting instructions, by making the signals immediately expressive, not of orders, but of simple numbers. These numbers being prefixed to the various articles of the code of instructions, the officer who sees a signal thrown out by the admiral reads the number, and reports it to his captain, perhaps without knowing to what it relates. Thus simplicity and secrecy, with an unlimited power of variation, are combined. M. de la Bourdonnais, a brave and intelligent officer, during the war 1758, was the author of this ingenious thought.

We do not propose to give a system of British signals. This would evidently be improper. But we shall show our readers the practicability of this curious language, the extent to which it may be carried, and the methods which may be practised in accomplishing this purpose. This may make it an object of attention to scientific men, who can improve it; and the young officer will not only be able to read the orders of the commander in chief, but will not be at a loss should circumstances place him in a situation where he must issue orders to others. Signals may be divided into, I. Day signals; II. Night signals; and, III. Signals in a fog. They must also be distinguished into, 1. Signals of evolution addressed to the whole fleet, or to squadrons of the fleet, or to divisions of these squadrons; 2. Signals of movements to be made by particular ships; and, 3. Signals of service, which may be either general or particular. The great extent of a large fleet, the smoke in time of battle, and the situation of the commander-in-chief, who is commonly in the midst of the greatest confusion and hottest fire, frequently makes it very difficult for the officers of distant ships to perceive his signals with distinctness. Frigates, therefore, are stationed out of the line, to windward or to leeward, whose sole office it is to observe the admiral's signals, and instantly to repeat them. The eyes of all the signal officers in the private ships of war are directed to the repeating frigates, as well as to the admiral; and the officers of the repeating frigates, having no other duty, observe the admiral incessantly, and, being unembarrassed by the action, can display the signal with deliberation, so that it may be very distinctly seen. Being minutely acquainted with the substitutions which must be made on board the admiral when his masts and rigging are in disorder, his (perhaps imperfect) signal is exhibited by the repeating frigate in its proper form, so as to be easily understood. And, to facilitate this communication, the commanders of the different squadrons repeat the signals of the commander in chief, and the commanders of division repeat the signals of the commanders of their squadron. Every evolution signal is preceded by a signal of advertisement and preparation, which is general, and frequently by a gun, to call attention; and, when all the signals have been made which direct the different parts of that evolution, another signal is made, which marks the close of the complete signal, and di

vides it from others which may immediately follow it and, as the orders of the commanderin-chief may relate either to the movements of the whole fleet, those of a single division, or those of certain private ships, the executive signal, which dictates the particular movement, is accompanied by a directive signal, by which these ships are pointed out to which the order is addressed. The commander of the ship to which any signal is addressed is generally required to signify by a signal, which is general, that he has observed it. And, if he does not thoroughly understand its meaning, he intimates this by another general signal. And here it is to be observed that, as soon as the signal is answered by the ships to which it is addressed, it is usual to haul it down, to avoid the confusion which might arise from others being hoisted in the same place. The order remains till executed, notwithstanding that the signal is hauled down. It may happen that the commander who throws out the signal for any piece of service sees reasons for altering his plan. He intimates this by a general annulling signal, accompanying the signal already given. This will frequently be more simple than to make the signals for the movements which would be required for reestablishing the ships in their former situation. All these things are of very easy comprehension, and require little thought for their contrivance. But, when we come to the particular evolutions and movements, and to combine these with the circumstances of situation in which the fleet may be at the time, it is evident that much reflection is necessary for framing a body of signals which may be easily exhibited, distinctly perceived, and well understood, with little risk of being mistaken one for another. We shall take notice of the circumstances which chiefly contribute to give them these qualities as we proceed in describing their different classes.

DAY SIGNALS.-These are made by means of the ship's sails, or by colors of various kinds. Those made with sails are but few in number, and are almost necessarily limited to the situation of a fleet at anchor. Thus,

Before we proceed to the description of the signals by means of colors, such as flags, banners (or triangular flags), pendants, or vanes, we must take notice of the ostensible distinctions, of the various divisions and subdivisions of a fleet, so that we may understand how the same signal may be addressed to a squadron, division, or single ship or ships. We suppose it known that a fleet of ships of war is distributed into three grand divisions, which we shall term squadrons, called the van, centre, and rear. These denominations have not always a relation to the one being more advanced than the other, either towards the enemy, or in the direction of their course. In a land army, the position of every part is conceived from its reference to the enemy; and the reader, conceiving himself as facing the enemy, easily understands the terms van, centre, and rear, the right and left wing, &c. But, the movements of a sea army having a necessary dependance on the wind, they cannot be comprehended unless expressed in a language which keeps this circumstance continually in view. The simplest and most easily conceived disposition of a fleet, is that in which it is almost indispensably obliged to form in order to engage an enemy. This is a straight line, each ship directly a-head of its neighbour, and close hauled. This is therefore called the line of battle. In this position the two extremities of the fleet correspond to the right and left wings of an army. Suppose this line to be in the direction east and west, the wind blowing from the N. N. W., and therefore the fleet on the starboard tack; the ships' heads are to the west, and the westernmost division is undoubtedly the van of the fleet, and the easternmost division is the rear. And it is in conformity to this arrangement, and situation, that the list of the fleet is drawn up. But the ships may be on the same east and west line, close hauled, with their heads to the west, but the wind blowing from S.S. W. They must therefore be on the larboard tack. The same ships, and the same division, are still, in fact, the van of the fleet. But, suppose the ships' heads to be to the eastward, and that they are close hauled, having the wind from S.S. E. or N. N. E., the ships which were the real van, on both tacks in the former situation, are now, in fact, the rear on both tacks; yet they retain the denomination of the van squadron of this fleet, and are under the immediate direction of the officer of the second rank, while the other extremity is under the direction of the third officer. This subordination therefore is rather an arrangement of rank and precedence than of evolution. It is, however, considered as the natural order to which the general signals must be accommodated. For this reason the division which is denominated van, in the list of this fleet, is generally made to lead the fleet when in the line of battle on the starboard tack, and to form the weathermost column in the order of sailing in columns; and, in general, it occupies that station from which it can most easily pass into the place of the leading division on the starboard line of battle a-head. Although this is a technical nicety of language, and may frequently puzzle a landsman in reading an account of naval operations, the reflecting and intelligent reader will see the

propriety of retaining this mode of conceiving the subordinate arrangement of a fleet, and will comprehend the employment of the signals which are necessary for re-establishing this arrangement, or directing the movements while another arrangement is retained. This being understood, it is easy to contrive various methods of distinguishing every ship by the place which she occupies in the fleet, both with respect to the whole line, with respect to the particular squadron, the particular division of that squadron, and the particular place in that division. This may be done by a combination of the position and color of the pendants and vanes of each ship. Thus the color of the pendants may indicate the squadron; their position or mast on which they are hoisted may mark the division of that squadron; and a distinguishing vane may mark the place of the private ship in her own division. The advantages attending this method are many. In a large fleet it would hardly be possible for the commander-in-chief to find a sufficient variety of single signals to mark the ship to which an order is addressed, by hoisting it along with the signal appropriated to the intended movement. But by this contrivance one-third part of these signals of address is sufficient. It also enables the commander-in-chief to order a general change of position by a single signal, which otherwise would require several. Thus, suppose that the fore, main, and mizen masts, are appropriated, with the proper modifications, for exhibiting the signals addressed to the van, the centre, and the rear squadrons of the fleet, and that a red, a white, and a blue flag, are chosen for the distinguishing flags of the officers commanding these squadrons; then, if the commander-in-chief shall hoist a red flag at his mizen top-gallant mast head, it must direct the van squadron to take the position then occupied by the rear squadron, the evolution necessary for accomplishing this end, being supposed known by the commander of the squadron, who will immediately make the necessary signals to the squadron under his particular direction. In the same manner, the distinguishing signal for the leading ship of a squadron being hoisted along with the signal of address to the whole fleet, and the signal for any particular service, will cause the three or the nine leading ships to execute that order, &c. &c. All that has been said hitherto may be considered as so many preparations for the real issuing of orders by the commander-in-chief. The most difficult part of the language remains, viz. to invent a number of signals which shall correspond to that almost infinite variety of movements and services which must be performed. Distinctness, simplicity, and propriety, are the three essential qualities of all signals. A signal must be some object easily seen, strongly marked, so that it may be readily understood, with little risk of its being mistaken for another. When made by flags, banners, or pendants, they must be of the fullest colors, and strongest contrasts. The ships are frequently at a very great distance, so that the intervening air occasions a great degradation of color. They are seen between the eye and a very variable sky; and in this situation, especially in the morning or evening, or a dark day, it is not easy to

distinguish one full color from another, all of them approaching to the appearance of a black. At the distance of a very few miles hardly any full colors can be distinguished but a scarlet and a blue. Red, blue, yellow, and white, are the colors which can be distinguished at greater distances than any others, and are therefore the only colors admitted as signals. Even these are sometimes distinguished with difficulty. A yellow is often confounded with a dirty white, and a blue with a red. All other dark colors are found totally unfit. But, as these afford but a small variety, we must combine them in one flag, by making it striped, spotted, or chequered, taking care that the opposition of color may be as great as possible, and that the pieces of which the flags are made up may not be too minute. Red must never be striped nor spotted with blue, and the stripes, spots, or chequers, should never be less than onethird of the breadth of the flag. Their colors are represented by hatching, in the same manner as in heraldry. See HERALDRY. Difference of shape, as flags, banners, or pendants, is another distinction by which the expression may be varied. And, in doing this, we must recollect that in light winds it may be difficult to distinguish a flag from a banner, as neither are fully displayed for want of wind to detach the fly from the staff. And, lastly, signals may be varied by their position, which may be on any lofty and well detached part of the masts, yards, or rigging. Simplicity is an eminent property in all signals. They are addressed to persons not much accustomed to combinations, and who are probably much occupied by other pressing duties. It were to be wished that every piece of service could be indicated by a single flag. This is peculiarly desirable with respect to the signals used in time of battle. The rapid succession of events on this occasion call for a multitude of orders from the commander-in-chief, and his ship is frequently clad over with flags and pendants, so that it is exceedingly difficult for the signal officer of a private ship to distinguish the different groups, each of which make a particular signal. These considerations are the foundation of a certain propriety in signals, which directs us to a choice among marks which appear altogether arbitrary. Signals which run any risk of being confounded, on account of some resemblance, or because their position hinders us from immediately perceiving their difference, should be appropriated to pieces of service which are hardly possible to be executed, or can hardly be wanted in the same situation. No bad consequence could easily result, though the signal for coming to closer action should resemble that for unmooring, because the present situation of the ships makes the last operation impossible or absurd. Such considerations direct us to select for battle signals those which are of easiest exhibition, are the most simple, and have the least dependence on the circumstance of position; so that their signification may not be affected by the damages sustained in the masts or rigging of the flag ship. Such signals as are less easily seen at a distance should be appropriated to orders which can occur only in the middle of the fleet, &c., &c Signals which are made to the admiral

The

by private ships may be the same with signals of command from the flag-ship, which will considerably diminish the number of signals perfectly different from each other. With all these attentions and precautions, a system of signals is at last made up, fitted to the code of sailing and fighting instructions. It is accompanied by another small set for the duty of convoys. It must be engrossed in two books; one for the officer of the flag-ship, who is to make the signals, and the other is delivered to every private ship. In the first the evolutions, movements, and other operations of service, are set down in one column, and their corresponding signals in another. The first column is arranged, either alpha betically, by the distinguishing phrase, or systematically, according to the arrangement of the sailing and fighting instructions. The officer whose duty it is to make the signals, turns to this column for the order which he is to communicate, and in the other column he finds the appropriated signal. In the other book, which is consulted for the interpretation of the signals, they are arranged in the leading column, either by the flags, or by the places of their exhibition. first is the best method, because the derangement of the flag-ship's masts and rigging in time of action may occasion a change in the place of the signal. The Tactique Navale of the chevalier de Morogues contains a very full and elaborate treatise on signals. We recommend this work to every sea-officer, as full of instruction. The art of signals has been greatly simplified since the publication of this work, but we cannot but ascribe much of the improvements to it. We believe that the author is the inventor of that systematic manner of addressing the order or effective signal to the different squadrons and divisions of the fleet, by which the art of signals is made more concise, the execution of orders is rendered more systematic, and the commanders of private ships are accustomed to consider themselves as parts of an army, with a mutual dependence and connexion. We are ready enough to acknowledge the superiority of the French in manoeuvring, but we affect to consider this as an imputation on their courage. Nothing can be more unjust; and dear-bought experience should long ere now have taught us the value of this superiority. What avails that courage which we would willingly arrogate to ourselves, if we cannot come to action with our enemy, or must do it in a situation in which it is almost impossible to succeed, and which needlessly throws away the lives of our gallant crews? Yet this must happen, if our admirals do not make evolutions their careful study, and our captains do not habituate themselves, from their first hoisting a pendant, to consider their own ship as connected with the most remote ship in the line. We cannot think that this view of their situation would in the least lessen the character which they have so justly acquired, of fighting their ship with a courage and firmness unequalled by those of any other nation. And we may add that it is only by such a rational study of their profession that the gentleman can be distinguished from the mercenary commander of a privateer.

Night signals.-It is evident that the com

munication of orders by night must be more difficult and more imperfect than by day. We must, in general, content ourselves with such orders as are necessary for keeping the fleet together, by directing the more general movements and evolutions which any change of circumstances may render necessary. And here the division and subordinate arrangement of the fleet is of indispensable necessity, it being hardly possible to particularise every ship by a signal of address, or to see her situation. The orders are therefore addressed to the commanders of the different divisions, each of whom is distinguished by his poop and top-lights, and is in the midst of, and not very remote from, the ships under his more particular charge. Yet, even in this unfavorable situation, it is frequently necessary to order the movements of particular ships. Actions during the night are not uncommon. Pursuits and rallyings are still oftener carried on at this time. The common dangers of the sea are as frequent and more disastrous. The system of signals therefore is very incomplete till this part be accomplished. Night signals must be made by guns, or by lights, or by both combined. Gunsignals are susceptible of variety both in number and in disposition. The only distinct variation which can be made in this disposition is by means of the time elapsed between the discharges. This will easily admit of three varieties, slow, moderate, and quick. Half-minute guns are as slow as can easily be listened to as appertaining to one signal. Quarter-minute guns are much better, and admit of two very distinct sub-divisions. When the gunners, therefore, are well trained to this service (especially since the employment of fire-locks for cannon), intervals of fifteen or twelve seconds may be taken for slow firing, eight or ten seconds for moderate, and four or five seconds for quick firing. If these could be reduced one-half, and made with certainty and precision, the expression would be incomparably more distinct. A very small number of firings varied in this way will give a considerable number of signals. Thus five guns, with the variety of only quick and moderate, will give twenty very distinguishable signals. The same principle must be attended to here as in the flagsignals. The most simple must be appropriated to the most important orders, such as occur in the worst weather, or such as are most liable to be mistaken. Quick firing should not make part of a signal to a very distant ship, because the noise of a gun at a great distance is a lengthened sound, and two of them, with a very short interval, are apt to coalesce into one long continued sound. This mode of varying gun-signals by the time must therefore be employed with great caution, and we must be very certain of the steady performance of the gunners. Note, that a preparatory signal, or advertisement that an effectual signal is to be made, is a very necessary circumstance. It is usual (at least in hard weather) to make this by a double discharge, with an interval of half a second, or at most a second. Gun-signals are seldom made alone, except in ordinary situations and moderate weather; because accident may derange them, and inattention may cause them to escape notice, and, once

made, they are over, and their repetition would change their meaning. They are also improper on an enemy's coast, or where an enemy's cruisers or fleets may be expected. Signals by lights are either made with lights, simply so called, i. e. lanterns shown in different parts of the ship, or by rockets. Lights may differ by number, and by position, and also by figure. For the flag-ship, always carrying poop or top lights, or both, presents an object in the darkest nights, so that we can tell whether the additional lights are exhibited about the mainmast, the foremast, the mizenmast, &c. And if the lights, shown from any of these situations are arranged in certain distinguishable situations in respect to each other, the number of signals may be greatly increased. Thus three lights may be in a vertical line, or in a horizontal line, or in a triangle, and the point of this triangle may be up, or down, or forward, or aft, and thus may have many significations. Lights are also exhibited by false fires or rockets. These can be varied by number, and by such differences of appearance as to make them very distinguishable. Rockets may be with stars, with rain fire, or simple squibs. By varying and combining these, a very great number of signals may be produced, fully sufficient to direct every general movement or evolution, or any ordinary and important service. The chevalier de Morogues has given a specimen of such system of night signals, into which he has even introduced signals of address or direction to every ship of a large fleet; and has also given signals of number, by which depths of soundings, points of the compass, and other things of this kind, may be expressed both easily and distinctly. He has made the signals by rockets perfectly similar in point of number to those by lanterns, so that the commander can take either; a choice which may have its use, because the signals by rockets may cause the presence of a fleet to be more extensively known than may be convenient. The commander-in-chief will inform the fleet by signal, that guns, or perhaps rockets, are not to be used that night. This signal, at the same time, directs the fleet to close the line or columns, that the light signals may be better observed. It is indeed a general rule to show as few lights as possible; and the commander frequently puts out his own poop and top lights, only showing them from time to time, that his ships may keep around him. The signal lanterns on board the flag-ship, and a lantern kept in readiness on board of every private ship, to answer or acknowledge signals from the commander-in-chief, are all kept in bags, to conceal their lights till the moment they are fixed in their places, and the preparatory or advertising signal has been made. The commander-in-chief sometimes orders by signal every ship to show a light for a minute or two, that he may judge of the position of the fleet; and the admiral's signal must always be acknowledged by those to whom it is addressed. It is of particular importance that the fleet be kept together. Therefore the leading ships of the fleet, on either tack, are enjoined to acknowledge the signals of the commander-in-chief by a signal peculiar to their station. Thus the commander-in-chief learns the position of the extre