negotiations and treaties mark the attempts at accommodation or the bringing of new forces into play.

Feb. 1, 1643. Treaty of Oxford attempted; the result of a brief experience of war. The Parliament demanded the abolition of Episcopacy, the exclusion of certain persons from office, the appointment of other certain persons to judicial office. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 182.)

Sept. 15, 1643. Ormonde's Cessation in Ireland. A truce with the rebels on the basis of uti possidetis, to enable the English troops employed against them to come over to help the king. (See Carte, Ormonde.)

Sept. 25, 1643. The Solemn League and Covenant taken by the Parliament as the basis of an alliance with the Scots. This went further than the Scotch Covenant, in directly stipulating for the abolition of Episcopacy and for the establishment of uniformity of religion in England, Scotland, and Ireland. On this latter account it was distasteful to the rising party of Sectaries in the English army. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 187.)

Jan., 1645. The Treaty of Uxbridge attempted. The Parliament desired the abolition of Episcopacy, the taking of the Covenant by the King, permanent parliamentary control of ministerial appointments, parliamentary power of declaring peace and war, a permanent Committee of the two kingdoms to control military affairs; the attainder of 58 persons by name, and of all Papists in arms, and all persons concerned in the Irish rebellion; the permanent exclusion from office and deprivation of the estates of 48 persons by name, and of several large classes of persons.

The King's counter propositions suggested a return to the Constitution as it stood in August, 1641, the preservation of the Prayer-book, a bill for the relief of tender consciences, and a trial by law of all persons against whom offences were alleged. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 193 and 204.)

April 3, 1645. The Self-Denying Ordinance passed to exclude all members of both Houses from civil and military

office. This Act, which was in fact a victory for the Sects and more thoroughgoing revolutionary party, separated again the legislative and executive powers which the Houses had tried to combine. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 205.)

The overthrow of the King's armies in the field was followed by protracted negotiations between him, the Parliament, the Scots, and the Army Leaders for the settlement of the country.

Aug. 1, 1647. Proposals were drawn up by the Army Officers for a redistribution of seats, biennial parliaments, freedom of religion, except with regard to Romanists, and a nominated Ministry for seven years. Though the Proposals were refused by the Parliament as a basis of negotiation they are noteworthy as illustrating the progress of liberal opinion in the Army. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 232.)

Dec. 26, 1647. The King made an Engagement with the Scots, stipulating, in return for his restoration to the ancient monarchical power, as limited in 1641, for a three years' trial of Presbyterianism, and a subsequent settlement of religion by Parliament and certain Divines, and the suppression of the Sects. This was the agreement which produced the alliance of Royalists and Presbyterians in the war of 1648. (Gardiner, Const. Doc. 259.)

Dec. 5, 1648. The Lords and Commons voted that the King's concessions made to their negotiators at Newport were a sufficient basis for peace. By this agreement an Amnesty was stipulated for, the control of the military force was given to the Parliament for twenty years, Presbyterianism was to be established for three years, the bishops excluded from the House of Lords, but the episcopal order and property were not to be finally abolished and alienated.

The proposals fell through owing to the Purge of the Parliament by the Army, and the subsequent execution of the King. They are noteworthy as the last constitutional attempt at settlement before military force overthrew Parliament and King together. The original aims of the old Puritan party,

the Calvinistic reform of the Church and the control of the government of the King by a Puritan parliament, were never so near being accomplished in a regular legal manner, and failing now, failed entirely.

A complete account of the Newport Negotiation by Sir Edward Walker, clerk to the King, was published in Historical Dissertations relative to King Charles I. 1705.

The Acts of Parliament above which received the royal consent are printed in the Statutes.

Oct. 24. 1648. The peace of Westphalia closed the Thirty Years War, with which the beginnings of the English Civil War had been so closely connected. If it did not affect England immediately, it had European effects in which England could not long be unconcerned. It closed the era of religious wars, it fixed the limits of Catholic and Protestant rule in Germany, going back to the status quo of Jan. 1, 1624. It formally separated the Netherlands, Switzerland, and French Lorraine from the Empire, slightly increased the territories of Brandenburg (Prussia of the future), and largely aggrandized France and Sweden, on the Rhine and Baltic respectively. France became, in fact, the leading European power.

See Koch et Schoell, Histoire Abrégée des Traités, vol. i. ch. ii. §§ 3, 4.*

AUTHORS

Gardiner's History of England from 1603-1642, and his History of the Great Civil War, supersede all other English books.

Ranke's History, however, is still invaluable for its complete and impartial grasp of all the sides of the contest, from a point of view superior to any which can be reached by an English

man.

Hallam's Constitutional History is very fair and very

* Koch et Schoell, Histoire Abrégée des Traités depuis 1648, &c., fifteen vols., is a diplomatic history of Europe from 1648 to 1815, giving a résumé of important treaties and the complete text of some.

learned upon Constitutional points. The period is one in which contemporary writers are in reach of the ordinary reader. Clarendon's History of the Rebellion (Royalist), Whitelocke's Memorials of English Affairs (Moderate Parliamentary), Ludlow's Memoirs (Independent), Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, Carlyle ed., are all easily available, and are equally useful during the Commonwealth and Protectorate time following, except Clarendon, who is less valuable after the war was over, when he was absent from England. The Clarendon State Papers are a collection of documents made by Clarendon for the purpose of his history.

Rushworth's Collection, the most ample body of State Documents and contemporary notes of the period, was made by John Rushworth, a barrister, in the employment of the Long Parliament, and later a member of Parliament.

The Thurloe Papers are a collection of Letters, Despatches, &c., made by John Thurloe, Secretary in turn to the Council of State and the two Protectors.

THE COMMONWEALTH. 1649-1653

DOMINIONS

At the time of the execution of the King the whole of England was in the hands of the Parliament and Army, with the exception of Pontefract Castle and the Scilly Islands, which were reduced March 21st, 1649, and May, 1651, respectively. The island of Guernsey was captured in October, Man in November, Jersey in December, 1651. Barbadoes and Virginia were also reduced in 1651.

These islands and colonies were altogether, or had long practically been, dependencies of England, but the Commonwealth proceeded to foreign conquest when the army was sent to conquer Ireland in 1649, against such a combination of Irish and Anglo-Irish as has never been seen before or since. The

conquest was assured in 1649, though hostilities continued for many years. The independent kingdom of Scotland was mostly conquered in 1650 and 1651, though opposition continued in the Highlands.

WARS

The naval war, to reduce the Royalist islands and colonies, easily merged into a war with the Dutch, who traded with the colonies while in Royalist hands, and were jealous of English maritime power. The war broke out in 1652; there were several severe and indecisive naval actions, till, in 1653, the English got the upper hand. From February 18th to February 21st there was a running fight between Blake and Van Tromp from off Portland Bill to off Cape Blanc Nez; on June 2nd and 3rd the Dutch were again defeated off the North Foreland by Blake, Deane (killed in the action), Monk, and Penn; on July 31st the Dutch fleet was nearly destroyed and Van Tromp killed, by Monk and Penn off the Texel, 1653.

In 1649 Cromwell invaded Ireland, and by the storm of Drogheda and massacre of the garrison and population, September 11th, and by the storm of Wexford, October 9th, broke the neck of resistance.

In 1650 he invaded Scotland, and after a fruitless attempt upon Edinburgh was out-manoeuvred by David Leslie and forced back upon the sea at Dunbar, where the over eagerness of the Scots gave him a great victory on September 3rd. In 1651 Charles II., with the Scotch army, marched into England, but were overtaken and entirely defeated by Cromwell and Lambert at Worcester September 3rd; Monk meanwhile reduced most of Scotland.

OFFICIALS

Feb. 8th, 1649. Commissioners of the Great Seal, Bulstrode Whitelocke, John Lisle, Sergeant Keeble.

Feb. 14th, 1649. A Council of State was erected by