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too died at a great age; and was numbered among the gods with the title of Fatzman, or the Mars of Japan.' One of the most cruel and barbarous of all the Japanese emperors was Buretz, who came to the throne A. D. 499. He took great delight 'in cutting off people's heads. With his own hands, he ripped open the bellies of women with child; on which occasion, it is said, that fire fell from heaven, and that the emperor, to guard himself against it, caused a room to be built all of stone.' He inflicted many other cruelties on his subjects. Some he tortured by plucking out their nails; others he commanded to climb high trees, and then he would shoot at them. In this manner he reigned 80 years. During these times the worship of idols greatly increased in Japan; and idols, and idol-makers, and priests went thither from beyond sea.

Many of the Japanese emperors, as we may conclude from the instances already cited, lived to a very old age; not a few of them, however, have died early; and some have come to an untimely death by the hands of their enemies. In numerous instances females have held the reins of government; and there are not wanting cases in which the lords of creation have exchanged the imperial court for a monastery. While Japan was agitated by many internal strifes, it was not free from foreign influence: nor were its foreign wars confined to the Coreans and Chinese. In the year A. D. 788, a foreign and strange people came against Japan; and so bold and valiant were they, and so constantly strengthened by recruits, that eighteen years elapsed before they were overcome and driven from the country.

The reign of Gotoba, who came to the throne A. D. 1184, is memorable for civil wars and the extension of the power of the siogun. Joritomo, the first individual who became in a measure independent of the emperor, was born at court, 1152. The supreme and unlimited authority of the daïri had then begun to decline. The princes of the empire, governed by ambition, jealousy and envy, abandoned by degrees the duty and allegiance which they owed to their sovereign; assumed an absolute power in the government of their dominions; entered into alliances for own defense; and carried on war against each other, to revenge the injuries they had received. In this state of affairs, Joritomo was sent by the emperor, at the head of a numerous army, with absolute power, to adjust the differences and put an end to the wars between the princes of the empire. Men intrusted with power seldom care to part with it. So it was with Joritomo. Seizing the favorable opportunity now put into his hands, he espoused the interest of those of the contending parties, whom he thought the most likely to support his own, and in this way increased his power to such a degree, as not only to arrogate to himself absolute authority, but to leave to his successors a plausible pretext to claim the same. Thus by the quarrels and disobedience of the princes, the power of the emperor received a fatal shock, though without prejudice to his dignity, rank, and holiness.' From that period down to the present, these two branches of authority-one belonging to the emperor, the other to the siogun-have continued distinct.

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This sketch of the early history of the Japanese will afford us a part of the data upon which we must form our opinion of their national character; at the same time, we must avail ourselves of the testimony of those who have visited the country since it became known to Europeans in the sixteenth century. Granting it to be a fact, as it seems most probable, that the Japanese are not descendants of the Chinese; yet having been civilized by that people, and having derived from them no small part of their laws, literature, and religion, it is not strange that they should bear a very striking resemblance to the Chinese. This resemblance of course is not so visible in their form and features, as in the great outlines of their national character. Pride and arrogance are the distinctive traits of the Jpanese of all classes. They look down with scorn upon all their neighbors, not excepting even the Chinese. Those who are in authority are fond of pomp and show; and whenever they appear abroad are accompanied by a retinue, and always exact from their inferiors the same respect that they themselves pay to the emperor. As to the courage and bravery of the Japanese, writers are not agreed; but in these qualities they would be found, we apprehend, if put to the test, not very unlike the Chinese.

Von Overmeer Fisscher, who resided in Japan from 1820 to 1829, and visited the court of the siogun at Yedo in 1822, has published to the world the results of his observations in that country. The most prominent trait in the charcter of the Japanese, he says, is ambition. The princes voluntarily make the greatest sacrifices in order to obtain from the siogun new titles and more elevated rank; and their vassals likewise, in their turn, employ every expedient to procure honors and advancement from them. The superior classes alone have a right to be carried in a closed palanquin; those of the inferior ranks can use only a kango, a kind of sedan. Etiquette is rigidly observed in everything, and no one dares to refuse to a person of superior rank the honors due to him. Notwithstanding the wealth of the mercantile class, traders are held in no esteem; they therefore strive, by rendering financial services to the princes and grandees, to obtain some post in their suite, which gives them a title to wear distinctive signs.' Mr. Fisscher, though evidently disposed to eulogize the Japaneses, acknowledge, with all others that have visited their country, that there are usages among them which can not fail to shock even European ideas." Additional light will be thrown on the character of the Japanese when we come to speak (as we intend to do in our next number) of their government, their literature, religion, manners, customs, and intercourse with foreign nations. Captain P. Gordon, who visited Yedo in 1818, says he never was in a country, the inhabitants of which conducted themselves with so much propriety as the Japanese they were not only polite and affable towards him, but invariably so towards each other.' The captain here speaks of the people; and there is no reason to doubt, that were they free from the restraint of their rulers, they would, like the people of China, welcome foreigners to their shores.

ART. II. Mohammedanism; its present attitude in Eastern and Western Asia, with an outline of a defense of the Gospel against the Malayan Mohammedans.

A CORRESPONDENT, who has long been familiar with the Malays, has forwarded to us a paper containing an epitome of a work now publishing in the language of that people. It is entitled 'a Defense of the Gospel against Mohammedan objections;' and is a curious and interesting work, aud will prove instructive and convincing to Mussulmen. It seems to have been called forth by the present circumstances of the Mohammedans in the Malayan states. The religious tenets of the Turk and Malay, derived from the same source and cherished for several centuries, have given to them a degree of similarity in their national character. Though the Turk is possessed of more political power than the Malay, yet he scarcely exceeds him in those qualities which have rendered them both alike formidable to their enemies, and all are their enemies who are not with themselves worshipers of the false prophet. In the administration of justice the Malays are lax in every respect; but generally heavily armed to enforce their haughty claims. In some of the settlements, every man has a sword, a creese, sometimes two, and frequently two or three spears. The latter might rather be termed javelins, being very heavy, and are thrown so exact, that at the distance of ten or twelve paces, they will pass through the body of a man. The Malays who are trained and armed in this way are usually proud idlers, and are frequently engaged in deadly quarrels. But the gospel of God is destined to subdue and triumph over all the bad passions of these men; and already the circulation of Bibles and Christian books among them and their neighbors has roused many of the Malays to search the Scriptures, and to compare them with their own creed,―the doctrines of the Koran.

In Western Asia, Mohammedanism has heretofore exhibited a still more imposing aspect. "Its laws have ever imposed tribute or the forfeiture of life, upon unbelievers, and denounced inevitable death upon apostates. Its professors have long held at the disposal of their arbitrary will, large bodies of subjugated Christians; they once triumphed over the chivalry of Europe; and their sovereigns sat upon the subverted throne of the Cæsars." But changes have taken place even in Turkey-the very seat of the monster; changes which tend to liberalize and humble the disciples of the Arabian conqueror. By his recent adoption of Christian improvements, the sultan, the vicegerent of Mohammed, has broken the spell which bound to him millions of loyal subjects. To that religious fanaticism which has ever been the strongest principle of obedience in the Turkish vassal, and of bravery in the Turkish soldier, he can no longer appeal. Once he had only to impose the ban of empire upon the famous Ali Pasha of Yoannina, and the head of the outlaw soon graced the portals of

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the seraglio. Now the same interdict is issued against Mohammed Ali of Egypt, and his victorious army only marches the bolder towards the walls of the capital. The late Russian war and the battle of Navarino, with other cases, have shown the Mohammedans of the Turkish empire that they are but men-men too, who have their equals. The consequence is, that the improvements of modern Europe can now be introduced, and will probably soon spread, throughout Western Asia. By some such means, doubtless, a way will be opened for the introduction of the same improvements among the inhabitants of Eastern Asia. The Mohammedans that are found in China, have lost much of their characteristic pride, by the endurance of the still greater haughtiness of their masters. The Turk adds to his spirit of domination great strength and boldness; the Chinese has indeed the haughtiness, but not the nerve and daring of the Turk. On every side, therefore, we see reasons for encouragement. In the Malayan states, the spirit of inquiry is waking up, and search is being made for the truth. In Western Asia, the glory of the sultan is waning, and the pride of his subjects is brought low. But we must return to the paper before us, which we give in the words of our correspondent, only 'curtailing' some parts of it, agreeably to his suggestion.

The first chapter commences with an account of the sacred oracles, and produces many passages out of the Koran in praise of the Old and New Testaments, pointing them out as the fountain of truth, and the sure directory in matters of faith and practice. It then shows the attempt which Mohammed made to establish the truth of his own mission by an allusion to the sacred books of the Jews and Christians, and how he told his followers to go and ask those religionists whether the law and gospels did not contain prophecies respecting himself; but supposing (as well he might) that the Jews and Christians would not bear him out in his claims, he further enjoined it on his followers not to give heed to what those religionists should say. Finding at length that the Jews and Christians would have the best of the argument with him, and be enabled to convict him of advancing unfounded assertions, showing from their books, that no such things were prophesied of him as he pretended, he then sought to shelter himself under the assertion that the Jews and Christians had struck out or altered all those passages which referred to himself. Various passages from the Koran and other Arabic writers are then quoted, in which Mohammed brings forward this charge; and one passage in particular is adduced, which Mohammed affirms in his Koran referred to himself, and which the Jews and Christians had struck out of their writings. This is the well known passage in chapter lxi. of the Koran: "And Jesus the son of Mary said, O children of Israel, verily I am the apostle of God sent unto you, confirming the law which was delivered before me, and bringing good tidings of an apostle who shall come after me, and whose name shall be Ahmed." But this passage, it is shown, never was uttered by Jesus, and is to be found in no gospel, either authentic or spurious, now extant. The reply to this, that the

passage being not now found in the gospels is no proof that it never was there, is then discussed, and the proofs brought forward that the sacred Scriptures, as they now exist in the hands of the Jews and Christians, are unaltered and unadulterated, and remain the same as they were when they proceeded from the hands of the prophets and apostles; and since the Mohammedans ground the controversy on the assertion that our sacred Scriptures have been altered, if we can show that they have not been altered, then the main argument of the Mohammedans falls of itself to the ground.

The second chapter goes largely into the proof of the point that the sacred oracles have not been falsified or changed. In order to this, it is shown that the Scriptures held sacred by the Jews and Christians consist of two parts, the Old and New Testaments; of these the Jews acknowledge only the first, but the Christians both the first and second. With respect to the Old Testament it is shown that the whole work was not written at one time, nor by one individual, but that it is divided into various sections, which were written partly by Moses and partly by other prophets; and as these prophets were not contemporary, their writings were published at different intervals. Further it is observed, that the sacred writings were not sent down ready made from heaven, but were written by human pens, while the authors were under the influence of the Spirit of God, by which means they were kept from error, and wrote only those things which were agreeable to the mind of God. The various dates and authors of each of the sacred compositions are enumerated, and it is then shown that about 400 years before the coming of Christ, the whole of the sacred books of the Old Testament were collected into one volume, which from that time to the present has been carefully guarded and highly esteemed by the Jews, who use it in their synagogues, read it in their dwellings, place their whole confidence in it, and would rather die ten times over than let it go out of their hands. They have even counted the number of words, letters, and points in this book. Indeed so very particular are they, that if a letter is wanting or even written awry in any sheet, they instantly reject it. From these things it is inferred, that the Jews would on no account presume to alter their sacred writings, and should one individual dare to do it, the whole nation would rise against him and condemn him. The translation of the Old Testament into Greek, about three hundred years before the coming of Christ, is then alluded to, the causes which led to it, the way in which it was executed, and the use it was both to Jews and Greeks, among whom it was widely spread; all of this occurred about a thousand years before the coming of Mohammed; it is therefore argued that, if the Jews in the time of Mohammed should have thought of altering the Hebrew Bible, they would not have been able to alter the Greek translation, that having been made a thousand years before, and carried round to countries 1000 miles distant; and if they had altered the Hebrew Bible only, and not the Greek translation, then the latter would have falsified the former, and a great discrepancy would have appeared between them;

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