be recognized, just as anti-Semitism will not disappear until the last vestige of the Jew as a Jew has disappeared.-Franz Boas, The Yale Review, January, 1921. C. N.

The Aaland Question.-Geographically, ethnographically, and culturally the Aalanders belong to the Swedish nationality in Finland. The Swedish Finlanders of the mainland are as determined as the Aalanders to preserve their nationality for all future. It is among them that the Swedish national movement in Finland originated. They maintain that the preservation of the Swedish nationality in Finland is a right which belongs to them and is also a duty to the country which they share with the Finns, because their language forms the cultural bridge with Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries with their old civilization. They believe that just as the French-speaking inhabitants of Switzerland can preserve their nationality without becoming subjects of France, so the Swedish-speaking Finlanders can preserve theirs without becoming subjects of Sweden. Finland's constitution of 1919 recognizes both Finnish and Swedish as the national languages and it recognizes in theory that the cultural interests of the Swedish-speaking population shall be supported by the state in accordance with the same principles as those applied to the Finnish-speaking population. These stipulations presuppose as their supplement special legislation regulating detail. The various Swedish-speaking districts desire autonomy within the state and the establishment of a higher administrative unit comprising the whole Swedish-speaking Finland. Through their delegates they have expressed the hope that the Council of the League of Nations will postpone its recommendations with regard to the Aaland Islands until the diet of the republic has regulated the position of that nationality as a whole.-Edward Westermarck, Contemporary Review, December, 1920. Ô. B. Y.

Social Reform in Missouri 1820-1920.-This treatise is a survey of social reform and social legislation, showing the work of the numerous agencies which have contributed to the social program. The subjects treated are crime and punishment, poverty and disease, the insane and feeble-minded, child welfare, boards of supervision, and welfare. These subjects are treated scientifically with especial emphasis on child welfare and education of the negro since the Civil War.-George B. Mangold (Pamphlet). Columbia, Mo.: Missouri State Historical Society. R. D. G.

The Indianization of Christianity.—In India it has been traditional to confine the chief cultural advantages to those belonging to the higher castes. The majority of the converts to the Christian faith have been from the depressed and backward classes, for Hinduism has very little to offer the non-caste man. When the claims of Christianity are presented he has to choose between the traditional religion which proposes to perpetuate his disadvantages and the new faith which promises amelioration of his wrongs and a democracy of spiritual privilege. These lower classes were not in a position to make much of a contribution to the task of rendering an Indian interpretation of their new faith. Now that the third and fourth generations are appearing in some localities this situation is rapidly changing. Many of these have received the advantages of college training. Christians from caste communities bring with them to their adopted faith the heritage of an ancient civilization. The imagery with which the thought-processes of the Indian people proceed is so different from that of Westerners that we do not realize its significance without years of observation and study and even then not fully. (1) The Indian mind responds more readily to parables than to syllogisms. Even the philosophic arguments abound in similes and metaphors. (2) The Indian mind responds more readily to the idealistic than the empirical method of thought. (3) The Indian religious consciousness is inclined to be mystical and contemplative. Its ideal is a life of ineffable communion or union with God. An example of this mystical element is that expressed in the concepts of yoga märga or way of asceticism. The Christian Sadhu movement is an attempt to link the Christian life to the yoga ideal. The Christianizing of India will involve an Indianization of Christianity as surely as the Christianizing of the GraecoRoman world involved the Hellenizing of Christianity.-Angus Stewart Woodburne, Journal of Religion, January, 1921. O. B. Y.

What Are the Japanese Doing toward Americanization? The Japanese are helping to Americanize themselves in four ways: (1) through the means of Japanese Christian churches, seventy-five of which now have more or less definite programs for social work, including such things as teaching of English, instruction in home economics and sanitation, and other social activities that are definitely contributory to the spiritual and physical assimilation of the Japanese; (2) through the Japanese press, consisting of fifteen dailies and twenty-five periodicals, that are meeting the needs of those who, because of lack of education and advanced age, are unable to read the English papers, by having the bulk of news contents deal with some subject related to the Americanization of the Japanese; (3) through the Japanese-language_schools, which are purely supplementary in nature, giving instruction only in the Japanese language which is at present still the dominant language of the home; (4) through Japanese associations in America, organized voluntarily among the Japanese residents in various localities solely for the purpose of promoting the welfare of their members and the friendship both among themselves and with Americans, and not, as many Americans are inclined to regard, agencies supported by the government in Tokyo. One of the recent and important additions to the administrative officers of the associations is the Americanization Committee whose prime duty is to send lecturers on Americanization to various Japanese centers, to distribute suitable literature on Americanization, and to assist and give advice in adopting respectable American customs and spirit.-Junzo Sasamori, Japan Review, December, 1920. K. E. B.

Great Cities and Social Settlements.-The Chicago Federation of Settlements, composed of twenty-five groups covering a wide range of work done by settlements of Chicago, has for its object fellowship and co-operation. It endeavors as a unit to further public and private measures intended to accomplish its ends. A statement just issued from the office of the secretary of the National Federation of Settlements sets forth clearly and concisely the motives and methods of settlement work. (1) The democratization of culture among settlement motives continues to be of first importance. The method of promoting culture through the interchange of experience is of proved validity. (2) Residence has demonstrated itself more than a motive and a method: it is a spiritual experience. (3) Residence provides an important means of knowing the conditions of the people's life, and of assisting them to develop new forms of group expression. (4) Residence is among the best forms of preparation for participation in civic affairs. (5) Definite and thorough instruction in the principles, ideas, and methods of settlement work should be assured all residents and associate workers, that they may be capable of seeing the universal in the particular. (6) Settlement organization should be kept flexible enough to permit ready response to opportunities for securing individuals and groups not included in the established routine. (7) The formation of an international federation of settlements, with provisions to keep members in touch with one another through correspondence, exchange of workers, and conferences, is a logical next step in settlement organization. -R. E. Hieronymous, School and Home Education, November, 1920. K. E. B.

Survey of Cripples in New York City.-This survey reveals the status of the cripples of that city through a study of 3,600 cases. Graphical representations show how the cases have been analyzed and classified for treatment by the social agencies. A lack of necessary funds and social workers in various lines has greatly impeded the work. With better organization and co-operation greater results are being accomplished. The great problem is vocational training which will function in earning a livelihood for these unfortunates.-Henry C. Wright, Director of Survey (Pamphlet). New York: Committee on After-Care of Infantile Paralysis Cases.

R. D. G.

Industrial Morale.-Industrial morale refers to the degree of co-operation extended by the employees of an enterprise to the management in the course of their work.' Fatigue, ill health, nervous strain, the belief that workmen will work themselves out of their jobs, dissatisfaction of the workers with the management, and the belief among the workers that the burdens and benefits in society are too unevenly distributed, create low industrial morale. Industrial unrest is also due to the "getting"

rather than "giving" philosophy. Business men frankly admit that they are in business not primarily to render service, but to make money. The workmen's low morale equally results from fear and resentment inspired among the workers by certain managerial policies. The feeling of unimportance fostered among workmen by their submergence in the vastness of industrial establishments and the policy pursued by many managements in building up in the men the feeling that they are of little importance, prevent the workmen from appreciating the importance of their work. In addition, failure of managements to recognize merit and good service and the lack of material rewards for merit naturally lead workmen to feel that the management does not appreciate good service. The transitory and precarious nature of employment and the impersonal relation that exists between the workmen and industry tend also to create a gulf between the men and the owners of capital. Labor cannot be expected to give its best effort to industry until industry, instead of being the servant of capital and the master of labor, is the joint servant of them both, devoted equally to the advancement of the interests of each.-Sumner H. Slichter, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, November, 1920. C. N.

Social Control of Industrial Strife.-The objective of society should be to eliminate premature, unnecessary, and unjust strikes and lockouts without closing the door to the usefulness of the strike in appropriate cases as a last resort. The following classes of strikes should be considered as illegitimate: (1) strikes against democracy in order to control or influence political action, as such acts are revolutionary and lay the ax at the very root of self-government; (2) strikes which unduly injure the public, such as a general railroad strike which can paralyze industry, commerce, and many of the functions of government in times of peace and war, and make millions of innocent people suffer from such antisocial action; (3) strikes against liberty seeking to curtail the rights of an employee to work regardless of union membership; (4) strikes against neutrals or sympathetic strikes which directly injure those against whom the strikers have no grievance; (5) strikes before presenting grievances, for to call strikes in advance of negotiations may be the wanton and malicious infliction of injury; (6) strikes in violation of reasonable agreements; (7) strikes in violation of an arbitration award; and (8) strikes where arbitration is available by a disinterested tribunal. Public opinion would certainly be united on the proposition that strikes in violation of the eight fundamental principles we have pointed out are in violation of sound public policy and should be generally discouraged.-Walter G. Merritt, The Unpartizan Review, January and March, 1921. C. N.

L'Enseignement du Bolchevisme dans le Monde.-The influence of bolshevism outside Russia is exercised not only on adults, for in London the Socialists have organized socialist Sunday schools where the children are taught that the regeneration of humanity requires a "bath of blood." The Young Socialist League boasts nine branches in London. The International School Movement (British section) is showing the young "how to bring about the inauguration of the Social Industrial Republic by the Dictatorship of the Proletariat." Social reforms are regarded as playthings like the congresses of the trade unions. The ideal is revolution in the Russian manner. According to the Journal of Commerce of New York of July 1, there are in the United States seventy-one colleges and universities where the teaching of bolshevism has penetrated. In France many teachers are impregnated with bolshevism. Article 23 of the constitution of the League of Nations has been inserted in the peace treaty, ad majorem Marxi gloriam. Fully a third of the treaty is a consecration of socialistic dogmas, denying economic truths, and calling for the organization of an international policy of labor which will give the laborers privileges permitting them to despoil their fellow-citizens with the help of foreigners. One should not look in Russia for the dictatorship of the proletariat: it has been instituted in the treaty of peace.N. Mondet, Journal des Economistes, December, 1920. V. M. A.

Le Mouvement Economique et Social. It seems that a wave of pessimism is sweeping over Germany today. Many laborers think that the leaders of socialism are much more occupied with their own interests than with the general interests of the country. The government is further embarrassed because there is a widespread

temptation to render it responsible for the great financial difficulties of the present. The Germans will not understand that the situation is the consequence of the stubbornness with which they prolonged a struggle which could not end to their advantage. The financial situation fortunately paralyzes the bellicose desires of the German people. Relying on the book of Keynes, which has had a great popularity in Germany, they insist upon the economic interdependence of peoples, that in the weakened condition of Europe all must save reciprocally as much as possible. France is accused of wishing to strangle Germany. It is with the neutral countries that Germany hopes to re-establish commercial relations. The Germans also have to create a whole constitutional organization, and to the difficulties involved in internal reorganization are added those of exterior politics.-Georges Blondel, La Réforme Sociale, September-October, 1920. V. M. A.

Population and Progress.-The most persistent cause of war is the overgrowth of population. That consideration alone is sufficient reason for urging that it is the duty of all nations deliberately to control their inherent capacity for increase. A stronger consideration is this: that in any large population a low birth-rate is a necessary condition of racial progress. This proposition holds for plant and animal life as well as for human beings. High birth-rates may be desirable for small populations with limitless opportunities for expansion but are impossible for large populations already short of elbow-room, except on the condition that a high infantile mortality shall keep pace with the high birth-rate. Weeds and insects have no lack of offspring but the survival rate is one-hundredth or one-thousandth of the birth-rate. A similar consideration applies to many of the races of mankind and notably to the Chinese. In China "infanticide, rebellions, and disease, swift slaying famine, or slow starvation," keep the population within the limits of subsistence. The western countries of Europe with their relatively low birth-rates have much lower rates of infantile mortality than India, China, or Russia. It is urban overcrowding which creates the gravest of England's problems today. For various practical reasons the problem cannot be solved either by transference of industries to the country or by immigration within the empire. The numbers are too vast to be dealt with by these methods. Unless these numbers are reduced by deliberate birth control there can be no widespread racial improvement and no appreciable betterment of the general conditions of life.-Harold Cox, Edinburgh Review, October, 1920. O. B. Y.

Labor Evolution and Social Revolution.-From the hour of the Armistice, class sentiment and national disunion have reasserted their sinister sway with redoubled force. Labor believes that it can exercise the dominating power in the state. Other classes feel that their actual existence is threatened by the claims set up by labor. To accomplish their purpose the manual workers have built up the trade-union movement in which the temperamental and intellectual characteristics of their leaders are reflected. Trade unionism thrives (1) under the leadership of a conservative, Victorian type of leader who always takes a specific line at conferences and congresses when he knows that it is a safe line for his own interests; (2) the Marxian type of leader who stands for industrial unionism and who points with a triumphant finger to the giant amalgamations of the miners, railway servants, and the transport workers as instruments for the realization of his dreams of Soviet rule; (3) the leader of the All-Red Doctrinaire Communists. This group has openly repudiated its former adhesion to the democratic faith, for this party stands for the dictatorship of the proletariat. The aftermaths of the war on British temperament, the profiteering of profit-mongers, and constant prolongation of the peace negotiations-all these have prepared the social fuel for a vast conflagration. So long as trade unionism was used as a weapon of defense against profiteering, or as machinery for improving the working conditions, it was a legitimate instrument of industrial progress. But when the same implement is used against the state to coerce the government in regard to political questions, it becomes not only illegal but treasonable.-Victor Fisher, The Nineteenth Century and After, October, 1920. C. N.

Is Industrial Peace Possible?-The world-war has resulted in an intensification of that class hatred which was first analyzed by Marx. Labor is beating no longer

against the introduction of machinery, but against the institution of profit. As the worker is a wage-slave he is constantly spurred by the fear of unemployment and he therefore will not continue to produce for private profit. The present industrial system has only one possible development, namely, the gradual formation of gigantic trusts on the one hand, and the trade unions with universal membership upon the other. The whole situation presents the conflict of a sullen revolt and of desperate, nervous resistance. The present system stands condemned and it can be abolished by the substitution of a system which will allow present wage-earners to share in the prosperity of their industry to a far greater extent, and which will eliminate the objectionable features of fixed wages, possible unemployment, profiteering, and the sleeping partnership of labor in industrial control. This objective would result in improvement in status and improvement in income. The right understanding of the industrial situation and economic education are necessary for the workers and employers to achieve these ends. The system of co-partnership is the only practicable working out of the gospel of the identity of the interests of all those engaged in industry.-Colin R. Coote, The Nineteenth Century and After, September, 1920. C. N.

Der Familiengerichtshof. Dr. Fehlinger discusses W. H. Liebman's paper on "Domestic Relations Courts," read before the conference of Jewish Social Workers in Atlantic City, 1919. These courts should have complete jurisdiction in the following cases: (1) desertion and non-support; (2) parental responsibility; (3) juvenile delinquency as well as all cases of contribution toward it; (4) adoption and guardianship; (5) divorce and alimony. The courts should have full advantage of all medical, social, psychological, and other expert advice; should maintain their own psychological stations and should conduct all familial problems in private. Society and not the individual should be the unit of welfare interest. And the whole atmosphere of the court should be as little official and as tactfully intimate as possible, using its judicial authority, even its probation powers, only as a last resort.-Dr. H. Fehlinger, Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft, September, 1920. R. S.

Co-operative Community Building.-The things in which farmers have a common interest and which every farmer and community ought to foster are: (1) good farming which lies at the root of good living and of good community building. Every farmer has a right to expect that his neighbor shall not rob posterity by a soil-depleting system; (2) good schools are a matter of common interest. Community effort is necessary to educate public opinion to the needs of rural schools; (3) the betterment of roads, for they are important for the transit of commodities, persons, and the exchange of ideas. Communication is the first requisite of any form of social organization; (4) good churches are necessary, for good country life depends on well-supported and ably ministered churches; (5) good recreational facilities for young people and grown-ups alike. The open country has little organized recreation; (6) the production of good farm products and of disposing of them honestly adds to personal, social, and business values alike; (7) the protection of rural government and rural legislation from the incumbrances which so easily attach themselves to governmental activities; (8) the dissemination of hygienic and sanitary knowledge. The purpose of rural organization is so to relate and adjust the forces, organized and unorganized, that the best economic and social standards of that unit shall be maintained.-Albert R. Mann, The Southern Workman, August, 1920. C. N.

Infant Welfare Affected by Class Distinctions and National Traits.-The economic and social status of the mother has a great deal to do with infant welfare. The rich mother is unwilling to nurse her baby, because it interferes with her social duties. She can, however, get possible substitutes in place of breast milk. The poor mother who is anxious to nurse her baby presents the biggest problem. For financial reasons she must go out of the home to add to the family livelihood. According to the degree of co-operation they give the physician and nurse the mothers may be classified into three classes: (1) the American (white) mother who does not present special problems in connection with infant-welfare work, except those peculiar to social conditions; (2) the colored mother who presents the problems of extreme