pounds gain in case of steers of different ages in winter and summer are, on the average, as follows:

Feed Required for 100 Pounds Gain with Steers of Different Ages

Pounds
gain

Per 100 pounds gain
produced
from one

Hay, Grain
bushel pounds feed,

pounds

corn

Calves, winter.
Calves, summer
Yearlings, winter.
Yearlings, summer.
Two-year-olds, winter
Two-year-olds, summer.

8.9 10.0 6.5 7.6 5.4 6.8

378
267
517
219
473

630 577 857 734 1036 818

129

According to a common rule of stockmen, it takes 1000 pounds grain and 500 pounds rough feed per 100 pounds gain in the feed lot; the averages of the returns on which the preceding data are based are 924 pounds grain and 428 pounds of roughage, showing that this rule gives a somewhat liberal allowance of feeds (Fig. 60).

The percentage dressed weight of cattle in thin body flesh will generally come from 54 to 58 per cent, and for fattening steers from 58 to 65 per cent or better, according to the breed and the degree of finish. The percentage dressed weight of steers but rarely exceeds 70 per cent on ordinary "fill” and when correct weights are taken. Cows and sheep, as a rule, dress between 50 and 55 per cent; and hogs between 75 and 80 per cent or better.

Cattle Markets.— The largest central cattle markets in the country were located in 1910 as follows: Chicago (over 3,000,000 cattle received during the year), Kansas City (2,250,000), Omaha and St. Louis (both about 1,250,000), Fort Worth, Texas New York, and St. Joseph, Mo. (decreasing, in the order given, from 1,000,000 to 500,000). Other important cattle markets are St. Paul, Sioux City, Denver, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Buffalo, etc. The relative importance of these markets will doubtless change with the further development of our cattle industry, since cattle markets follow in the wake of the producing areas; western cattle markets have developed rapidly during the last few decades, while the eastern markets have in general declined."

Shrinkage of Cattle.—When cattle are sold a certain deduction ? Illinois Cireular 88.

Loc. cit.; see also S. D. Bul. 125; N. M. Bul. 91; Indiana (Purdue) Bul. 146; N. H. Bul. 182

Illinois Circular 169.

10

is generally made for the "shrink" in weight between the place where sold and marketed. This allows for the loss in weight that occurs during transportation, and varies according to the distance traveled and methods of transportation, as well as the system of feeding and handling of the cattle prior to shipping. The shrinkage is generally figured at 3 to 4 per cent. On a 1000-pound steer this will mean a deduction of 30 to 40 pounds for which no pay is received. The United States Department of Agriculture has made careful studies of the various factors that influence the shrinkage in weight of beef cattle in transit.' It was found that the shrinkage of range cattle in transit over 70 hours during a normal year is from 5 to 6 per cent of their live weight. If they are in transit 36 hours or less, the shrinkage will range from 3 to 4 per cent of their live weight. The shrinkage of fed cattle does not differ greatly from that of range cattle for equal periods of time. It varies from about 3 per cent with all of the silage-fed cattle and 4.2 per cent with the corn-fed cattle when both classes of these animals were in transit for less than 36 hours, to 5.4 per cent for the pulp-fed cattle which were in transit from 60 to 120 hours.

The Spread or Margin.—The profit in beef raising depends not only on the gains made by steers during fattening period, but fully as much on the price at which the steers are bought and sold. The difference in the latter two figures is known as "spread” or “margin"; this is given per hundredweight or pound. If feeding cattle are bought at, say, 6 cents a pound and sold at the end of the fattening period at 7 cents, there is a margin of 1 cent per pound, or $1.00 per hundredweight. As the feed consumed by the steers frequently costs more than the value of the gain secured, it is important, in order to “break even,” that there be a certain margin of profit. This may vary from 12 to 112 cents per pound. Unless the feeder gets the benefit of the improvement in quality that occurs through the fattening process, he is not likely to come out even, and it is evident that the better he buys, the smaller margin will be required to make the feeding profitable; hence the old saying among stockmen, that “Well bought is half sold.”

The margin depends on at least five factors. The purchase price, the weight of animals bought, the gains made, the cost of the feed eaten, and the selling price. The manner in which each of these factors influences the profit of the feeding operations will be readily seen on reflection.

Cost of Feeding Beef Cattle. The proportionate cost of the 10 Bulletin 25.

various expenses incurred in cattle feeding on twenty-four Iowa farms, as determined by the U. S. Department of Agriculture during 1909–1911, is shown in the following table. The figures given indicate in a general way the importance of the various expenses in feeding cattle, at least in the corn belt. 11 Percentage of Various Expenses Incurred in Cattle Feeding on 24 Iowa Farms

* Delivered at farm (including freight and incidental charges). Excess in shrinkage.

It will be seen that the purchase price was more than one-half (57.8 per cent) of the total cost of the feeding, and that the feed cost came next, with about one-third (34.3 per cent) of the total expenses. These two items make up over 90 per cent of the expense of cattle feeding as practised on these farms, and the financial results of the feeding operations will, therefore, be determined largely by them and by the selling price of the steers. Waters 12 found that an average margin of $1.02 was required to cover the entire cost of fattening cattle in summer, in case of feeders in the Mississippi valley, and that a margin of $1.50 per hundredweight is necessary for six months' winter feeding for two-year-olds. Data obtained by the Purdue (Indiana) station in the same way showed that an average spread of $1.07 was required to break even under Indiana conditions, and that it cost cattle men in that State $4.80 per hundredweight gains in summer and $7.20 in winter.

Length of Feeding Period.—This will vary from sixty days to a year, according to a number of conditions, as kinds of stock, cost of feed, and market conditions. The various factors affecting the length of the fattening period are succinctly stated as follows by Mumford.13 “ The principal factors affecting the length of the feeding period are: Method of feeding, grade, condition, and age of feeding cattle used.

“Method of Feeding.--Where it is desired to feed a ration in which there is a large proportion of roughage to grain, the fattening process is slow. On the other hand, the feeding of large proportions of grain to roughage, or, in other words, the feeding of a highly-concentrated ration, usually shortens the fattening period. Forced feeding on highly concentrated rations required for quick finish is, of course, more hazardous than the longer feeding period with the more bulky ration. A compromise between the two somewhat radical methods has been practised with excellent results. This compromise method is as follows: For winter fattening 1000-pound feeders in a six months' period, use thirty to sixty days for getting cattle to full grain ration, allowing free access to all the roughage the cattle will take at the beginning, and gradually decreasing the amount of roughage as the grain is increased. With two- and three-year-old cattle that are finished on grass, 120 days of full feeding are usually sufficient to put such cattle in satisfactory marketable condition after they have been carried sixty to ninety days on light grain rations.

“Grade and Condition of Feeding Cattle Used.—The quality of breeding of the cattle has a direct bearing upon the proper length

NUMBER OF
DAYS FEEDING

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

56 84

112
140
168
182

Fig. 61.-The amount of grain required to produce a hundred pounds of gain in fattening steers increases with the range of the feeding period from about_730 pounds to 1000 pounds. (Kansas Station.)

of the fattening period. Common cattle of the lower grades and plainer sorts are not susceptible to the same high finish that can be given well-bred cattle, hence it is useless to feed them for it. Lowgrade feeders finish quicker than those of high-grade at the same weights and in the same condition, because they are older (Fig. 61).

“Age of Feeding Cattle Used.-In ordinary practice it takes three to four months to finish mature feeders, five to seven months for two-year-olds, eight to ten months for yearlings, and ten to eighteen months for calves."

On an

Pasture for Steer Feeding.–The profit made in feeding steers will depend largely on the kind and quality of the available pasture. Steers make their cheapest gains during the summer on grass, but grass-fed cattle do not bring the prices that those fed corn or other concentrates command, and if they are to be sold on the large markets they should receive grain in addition, especially later in the season, when the pastures no longer furnish abundant feed. It is important not to overstock the pastures, so that they will not be eaten too closely to furnish ample feed for the steers. average, one and one-half to two acres should be allowed

per

head to secure sufficient feed supply throughout the season. When grain is fed to cattle on pasture, the area of land for each steer may be reduced to one or one and one-half acres. On irrigated alfalfa or mixed pasture 2 steers may be allowed to the acre; while on poor hill or range pastures, it will take 20 to 25 acres to support a steer.

The gains made on pasture are also dependent on the method of winter feeding practised. If the cattle have been wintered largely on rough feeds and have been accustomed to depend on roughage for nourishment, they will be better able to make satisfactory gains on pasture alone, but whether they should be marketed as grass-fed must depend largely on the condition of the market. The gains made by cattle on pasture will range from one and onehalf to two pounds a day. Waters reports 14 that successful cattle men in Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa obtained the following gains for the season of six months: From yearlings, 270 to 288 pounds; for two-year-olds, 312 to 318 pounds. If a charge of 75 cents a month be made for yearlings on pasture, their gains cost approximately $1.60 per hundredweight; charging $1 a month for the season for the two-year-olds the gains they put on cost about $1.90 per hundredweight. Gains made on winter feeding, on the other hand, will cost at least $6 per hundredweight, and may be double this amount; the relative cheapness of pasture feeding when good gains are made is apparent from these figures.

Silage for Steers.—The number of cattle men who are feeding silage to their stock has increased greatly during late years, and in many sections silos are now as common on stock farms as they have long been on the dairy farms. The rapid growth of silage feeding on stock farms is conclụsiye evidence that silage is a good feed for steers. It is the consensus of opinion among feeders that it decreases the cost of beef production considerably, especially where no legume hay or protein feeds are fed. Trials have also shown that the addition of corn silage to an ordinary fattening