8. More flexibility in accepting students for university level study. For example, the new National Institute of Applied Science at Lyon does not require an entrance examination. 9. Part-time evening study for older students, many of whom lack the normal requirements for entrance into a university, for example, the promotion supérieure du travail at Grenoble. The following analysis of diplomas and degrees granted in scientific fields in France is for the years 1955 and 1961:46

46 Organisation for European Economic Co-operation. The Problem of Scientific and Technical Manpower in Western Europe, Canada, and the United States. Paris, 1958. p. 73; and Informations Statistiques, No. 40-41, mai-juin 1962. p. 229. Data for the specialized schools are not given for 1961 but would be higher than the 1955 figure. Hence the grand total for 1961 would be approximately twice that of 1955.

Table 42.-Scientific and technical manpower: number of personnel, 1955; diplomas and degrees granted, 1950, 1957 1

Teachers of science (secondary school and higher education; about 4,000 are in higher education). 25,800

1 UNESCO/International Bureau of Education. Training of Technical and Scientific Staff. Paris/ Geneva, 1959. p. 117. (Publication No. 206).

In 1959 the number of licences (d'enseignement) awarded had increased to 508 for mathematics, 815 for the physical sciences, and 942 for the natural sciences. For the physical sciences this was an increase of 63 percent over the previous year; for the natural sciences, it was a 48 percent increase, and there was speculation that the supply might exceed the demand in this field."

The swing to science and technology was evident in 1958 as the announcement was made of intentions to create in the next 2 years 13 new science faculties, 7 new "scientific university colleges," i.e., institutions offering the first year of university study in the sciences, and 3 new faculties of medicine. On the secondary school level it was estimated that by 1962, facilities would be needed to house 100,000 more students in technical schools.48

In spite of the various measures taken, France reported in 1959 that its scientific and technical personnel were insufficient to meet the needs of the nation. More young people needed to be directed into scientific and technical training at all levels, along with more teachers to provide such instruction. This same report noted the appointment of two commissions in 1959-one to study the problem of recruitment and training of scientific and research staff and one to examine, in collaboration with the Ministry of National Education, the problems arising out of the changing French economy. At the same time plans were announced for the opening of three science faculties by 1961 in Rennes, Nantes, and Nice,49

In 1960 the government announced the creation of four more university science colleges to be located at Chambéry, Le Mans, Orléans, and St. Etienne. By 1962 a total of 14 university science colleges

Education in France, No. 15, October 1961. p. 30.

Ibid., No. 7. September 1959.

p. 30.

UNESCO/International Bureau of Education.

Staff, op. cit., p. 112, 116.

Training of Technical and Scientific

were offering the first year of university work, as did 6 other colleges in the humanities. Enrollments in the 12 scientific colleges in existence in the fall of 1960 totaled 2,700; some had less than 60 students. while others had over 400.50

It is still too early to raise questions about the quality of the new university scientific colleges and there may not be any serious deviation from the traditional French pattern of instruction in science, which is fairly easily transplanted in new locations because of its concentration on mathematics and on study of a relatively small number of textbooks for the purpose of passing examinations. There is some concern in France about upsetting the proper balance between science and the study of the humanities now that science enrolls more university students than any other faculty.51

An authority on French science in his analysis of the training of French scientists stresses the role played by mathematics in comparison to natural science, which is of secondary importance; 52 moreover, physics, which has a heavy mathematical emphasis in France, is given more emphasis than chemistry. He notes also that experimental training is meager. The heavy emphasis on mathematics is attributed to the previous control over education by the Church and the dominance of the scholastic tradition-i.e. the study of Latin, Greek, logic and theology, and mathematics.

For centuries, outside of geometry and arithmetic, only astronomy and navigation were considered respectable sciences, and even these were studied by only a small group of men. In the 18th century, in France, the modern sciences began to develop. But with Napoleon came a reorganization of education and again the emphasis was placed on study of languages and mathematics. Even as late as 1954, of the literature and language studied by prospective scientists the authors were selected more for brilliance in style than for their keen observations of human behavior or of the natural world.53

Science Research

Until recently, strong ties did not exist between the science taught in the universities and the applications of science in industrial enterprises. The rigidity of academic institutions dominated by mathematics and theoretical physics, along with the slowness of the state and private industry in supporting scientific research, was given, in 1954, as the reason why certain industries were not more fully developed. The creation of the intermediate level of study (3rd cycle

54

50 Education in France, No. 16, January 1962. p. 10.

1 Education in France, No. 11, September 1960. p. 6.

52 Mayer, Jean. "Science" p. 266-336 in The Culture of France in our Times, edited by Julian Park, op. cit.

53 Ibid., p. 274.

64 Ibid., p. 308.

doctorate) short of the state doctorate has been interpreted as an indication of a willingness to change methods and goals toward more practical application of science.55

On the other hand, tradition is a strong force and accounts for the continuance of practices in industry and agriculture which are no longer economic or efficient. Moreover, the industries of France have not had a tradition of sponsoring long-range research unrelated to an immediate increase of profits.

There were some industrial laboratories carrying on scientific research but often they were poorly equipped and staffed by modern standards. Since 1958 French industrial production has risen rapidly. The growth has been attributed to several factors, including establishment of research centers in branches of industries where they did not exist previously.56

French scientists by 1958 were complaining of lack of coordination of scientific research and suggested the creation of a high commissioner for this field attached to the Office of the President of the Republic; and also the creation of a general secretariat for higher studies and scientific research in the Ministry of National Education.

There was, of course, already in existence the National Center for Scientific Research, which was an autonomous part of the Ministry of National Education. It was, however, just one of an increasing number of bodies devoted to the sponsorship and encouragement of scientific research. The need for more coordination by the national government was increasingly voiced; so in 1958, an inter-ministerial committee was formed from the ministries of education, finance, army, industry and commerce, public health and population, and agriculture. The problems in which this committee has shown an interest include: (a) new means of production of energy; (b) space; (c) development of greater knowledge of genetics and "psycho-pharmacology"; (d) and development of a documentation center to provide up-to-date data to scientific personnel.57

Since 1958 the portion of the French national government budget devoted to scientific research has increased dramatically, and now represents between 1 and 2 percent of the gross national product. A program introduced in the French National Assembly in 1960 called for expansion of government support of non-military, scientific research. The actual sum devoted to scientific research in France for 1961 was approximately $690 million, or more than $120 million over the figure for 1959. Of the 1961 total, $104.6 million came from the national government, and a good deal more came indirectly from the

Thabault, Yearbook of Education, 1959, op. cit., p. 201.

"French Industry and the Common Market." Bulletin from the European Community, No. 51, February 1962. p. 4-6.

57 France.

Ministère de l'Education Nationale, Encyclopédie Pratique de l'Education en France, op. cit., p. 32.

same source through grants to universities, the army, and such institutions as the National Center for Scientific Research, which had a budget of $50,108,938 for 1960 as compared to $2,694,000 in 1949.5 In spite of this effort, a French source declares that "French state research projects still lack hundreds of scientists and technicians, and government credits are still not high enough to offer salaries that attract enough of them." 5

Engineering

In 1955 France was reported as having 4,158 people graduating from its schools of engineering; proportionately this was one of the lowest outputs in Western Europe. By 1958 the annual output of engineers was up to 4,729. The estimated need, however, was 12,000 new engineers per year. The shortage of engineers is expected to get worse. Among the reasons given for the shortage are: (a) that the engineering schools do not admit a sufficiently large number of applicants, and (b) that many engineers are actually doing the work of technicians because of a shortage of this latter type of worker.62

The training of engineers occurs chiefly outside the universities in relatively small, specialized schools. There are two types of these schools, namely, those giving a general training in engineering with specialization in the last year of the program and those training for a specific branch of industry or government.

There are roughly three levels of training offered. The highest level of engineering education is given in a small number of grandes écoles and in 18 higher schools of engineering (écoles nationales supérieures d'ingénieurs); applicants to these schools spend one or two years after graduation from a secondary school preparing for the entrance examination. The second highest level of engineering training is given in the écoles d'ingénieurs d'arts et métiers. The lowest level of training is given in écoles d'ingénieurs, the majority of which train technicians rather than engineers.63 The écoles d'ingénieurs often accept students who fail to secure admittance to the higher types of engineering schools.64

68 France Actuelle, April 15, 1961. p. 8.

Ibid.

McCrensky, Edward. Scientific Manpower in Europe-A Comparative Study of Scientifle Manpower in the Public Service of Great Britain and Selected European Countries. New York: Pergamon Press, 1958. p. 117.

1 Education in France, No. 11, September 1960. p. 27–28.

62 Education in France, No. 15, October 1961. p. 13.

The Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America (EUSEC). Report on Education and Training of Professional Engineers, vol I. New York: 1961.

os Ibid.

p. 30.