example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence.

"Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence, the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly awake; since history and experience prove that foreign influence is one of the most baneful foes of republican government.

"The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is, in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none or a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us, to implicate ourselves by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities.

"Though in reviewing the incidents of my administration I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope, that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence; and that, after fortyfive years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest. Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat in which I promise myself to realize without alloy the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of good laws under a free government, the ever favorite object of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers.'

The last hopes of this noble man were fulfilled. He left only once more for a short time his peaceful rural abode, to defend his country against the pretensions of France. On the 14th of December, 1799, he died a peaceful, happy death, in the 67th year of his age. Congress resolved to solemnize the event of his decease by a large funeral procession and by wearing mourning for a month, and to erect to him a marble monument," resolutions both appropriate and laudable; although the admiration with which Washington was regarded by all civilized nations, showed him to be one of the few among mankind to whom is given an immortality more durable than brass or marble, and whose spotless and beneficent memory is cherished to the latest posterity.

* Laws, iii. 401.

In the year 1797, John Adams was elected president in the place of Washington, receiving 71 votes; and Thomas Jefferson vice-president, with 68 votes. The former was born in 1735, in the state of Massachusetts, was member of the first congress, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, ambassador to France, and author of a new constitution for Massachusetts. Although Adams was known to be upright, well-informed, and skilful in business.† yet many feared that his administration would assume a one-sided, Anglo-aristocratic character. inaugural address to Congress, however, tranquillized the minds of most persons. After acknowledging and enumerating the defects of the first federal constitution, he spoke in terms of praise of the new one. Far from wishing or urging any alteration in it, he declared that, as in duty bound, he would protect it, would respect the rights of the individual states, never exhibit local preferences, maintain every where peace and quietness, do justice, and show partiality to no foreign nation.

Complaints on this latter head could hardly be wanting during the wars between France and England, and the vehement partizanship of almost all their contemporaries, extending even to America. Thus it was said that the commercial treaty concluded with England was injurious, and that that country molested and ill-treated American shipping far more than France. But the position of the United States towards this latter power soon underwent a change. In the opening speech of his second congress, Adams complained, with great reason, that France showed herself very arrogant both in word and deed, that she had declared and sought to produce an opposition between the American people and the American government, and had sent back a new American ambassador. America wished to preserve peace every where, would readily acknowledge and repair errors, and institute fresh negotiations. There are bounds however beyond which a free people cannot suffer affronts, but must arm and defend itself. Congress agreed on all points with the president, and the French failed in producing either divisions or dastardly compliance.

The French Directory feigned to be exceedingly wroth at the president's very moderate speech; allowed the American envoy to wait for months in Paris; and then required that America should buy of them thirty-two millions of worthless Dutch paper, pay a large sum to Talleyrand by way of a gratification, and whatever other unseemly demands their dishonorable agents had the audacity to propose.

When this became known in America, all exclaimed in right• Wood's History of the Administration of J. Adams. ↑ Inchiquin's Letters, p. 68.

Jefferson's Writings, iii. 385.

eous indignation, "Millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute!* Thus in the year 1798, a war was brought about with France, and peace was not restored till after the downfall of the Directory, in September, 1800. Among the very many stipulations then made, this at least is worthy of mention, that free ships make free goods.

During the dissensions in France and the excitement exhibited in America, two laws were promulgated, entitled the Alien and Sedition Bills. The former allowed the president to send away suspicious foreigners who could give no security for their good behavior, and granted the right of American citizenship only after a residence of fourteen years. The Sedition Law was directed against unlawful unions, malicious publications, libels on the government, &c., and raised the penalties therefor to 2,000 dollars, or two years' imprisonment. While many approved of these laws as adapted to present circumstances, others termed them injudicious and tyrannical; and the great opposition between parties and tendencies, between federalists and republicans, assumed continually a clearer and more important position in the foreground.

Adams stood at the head of the former, and Jefferson at the head of the latter party. Yet Jefferson declares: "Adams was the chief support of the Declaration of Independence in Congress, and its most able defender against numerous attacks. Not captivating or elegant, not always fluent in his public speeches, he yet came forward with such power, both of thought and expression, that he moved us all. Never did a man of more perfect eloquence issue from the hands of the Creator."

Such is the testimony to the second president of the American republic, as furnished by his greatest opponent!

* Hinton, i. 431.

CHAPTER XI.

THOMAS JEFFERSON.

Birth, Descent, and Education-Declaration of Independence-Jefferson in ParisJefferson President-Jefferson on Freedom of the Press-Jefferson on Christianity-Jefferson on Plato--Federalists and Republicans-Jefferson's PrinciplesJefferson on Slavery-Jefferson on Political Union-Jefferson's AdministrationJefferson's Message-Louisiana-Contest with the Maritime Powers-Jefferson's Private Life-Jefferson, Adams, and Washington-Jefferson's Death-Jefferson's Fame.

THOMAS JEFFERSON, the eldest of eight brothers and sisters, was born on the 2d of April, 1743, at Shadwell, in Albemarle county, Virginia. His father's education had been neglected in youth; but as he was gifted by nature with a strong mind, he acquired by after industry a considerable share of knowledge. His early death prevented him from effecting much towards forming the mind of his son; but he left the latter sufficient means wherewith to procure himself an independent position. Thomas Jefferson was as destitute as Washington and Adams of those qualities which are often over-estimated on account of their superficial brilliancy; but on the other hand, he possessed that industry, firmness, constancy, and force of will, which he needed throughout life. An ardent fondness for philosophy, art, and classic antiquity, furnished and enlarged his mind in many ways. He spoke and wrote admirably, and obtained a reputation at the bar, although his bodily powers were hardly adequate to severe exertion as a speaker. Jefferson's conversation was fluent and instructive, and he won almost every one that came near him by the affability of his address. This dexterity and versatility, however, never impaired his firmness and resolution; and those opposite qualities of his mind were found equally necessary and beneficial, on the breaking out of the quarrel with England. From the beginning, Jefferson cherished the most fixed conviction, that a reconciliation with the mother-country was advisable only on the broadest foundations and with the most satisfactory concessions.† "I steer my bark," said he, "with hope in the head, leaving fear astern." The stormy sea of liberty was the element on which

* See Rayner's and Tucker's Lives of Jefferson; the Encyclopædia Americana; but above all, his most highly instructive Memoir and Correspondence, published in four volumes.

† American Review, vi. 497. Jefferson's Writings, iv. 271.

he sailed more boldly and further than ever man did before; without injury to himself, and-who can now deny it ?—to the advantage of his contemporaries and of posterity. "From Him," was the motto of his seal-ring, "comes liberty, from whom the spirit comes" (ab eo libertas, a quo spiritus); and "resistance to tyrants is obedience to God."

Jefferson was a principal founder of the associations for the preservation of the rights of North America; and of these he drew up a summary view in so convincing a manner, that Burke furnished it with additions and had it printed in England. The idea of the naturalness, justice, and necessity of the complete independence of North America was first fully developed by him; and Congress properly appointed himself, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston, to consult respecting it in close committee. By the choice of these his friends, (or should we not rather say, by the gracious election of God?) Jefferson was appointed to the task of drawing up the Declaration of Independence of North America; with which a new period in the history of social relations and human development begins.

That Jefferson was not thus brought into the list of men of undying reputation by any undeserved piece of good fortune, is shown by the ideas and plans which he propounded and to a great extent executed, as member of the legislative assembly (as early as 1769), and afterwards (in 1779) as governor of Virginia. Among these were: the abrogation of all restrictions on the free use of property, the abrogation of the right of primogeniture, freedom in matters of religion, no taxes or tithes in support of other creeds, the abolition of the slave-trade, the gradual abolition of slavery,† abolition of capital punishment (except for treason and murder), a simpler code of laws, provision for general education, &c.‡

After the independence of the United States had been established and acknowledged, so that the principal object was attained, Jefferson went, in May, 1784, as minister plenipotentiary to Paris, and remained there until October, 1789. The people who had joyfully greeted the birth-day of a new quarter of the world, or rather the day in which it came of age, and who had contributed to bring about the event, were now zealously employed in breaking the chains of effete customs and partial rights, and in founding for themselves a new and more happy existence. The coldest and dullest natures, as has been said, could not resist the enthusiastic feelings which this new dawn of liberty inspired;

*Ravner. p. 72.

The proposal for the abolition of slavery did not succeed.

The Statute Book, consisting of 90 folio pages, was prepared (1779—1785) chiefly by Jefferson and Madison.