had studied law in the university of Paris, and who belonged to the "Bourgeoisie," to go from place to place to deliver judgment in all such disputes. This act was of great benefit to France, and was appreciated by the poor peasants.

The college of Sorbonne, so named from Robert de Sorbon, confessor to Louis, and which became so famous as a theological university, was founded at this time.

Louis IX. was canonized by Pope Urban VIII., nearly thirty years after his death.

PHILIP III., THE HARDY.

1270-1285.

PHILIP III. concluded a treaty of peace with the Bey of Tunis, which was advantageous to the Christians and to the King of Naples. The epoch of the Crusades now ends. The king quelled a revolt, headed by the Count of Foix, who had unjustly taken lands from one of his vassals in 1276; he was preparing to pass into Spain, when domestic troubles retained him in France. Upon the death of Isabella of Anjou, Philip had married Maria of Brabant. Pierre de la Brosse, who had been barber to King Louis IX., but whom Philip had raised to the rank of first minister, and in whom he had great confidence, became jealous of the queen and afraid of her influence over the king; he therefore accused her of having poisoned Louis, the eldest son of Philip and Isabella. Maria was thrown into prison, but the king was most anxious that her innocence should be proved. Her brother sent her a champion to prove it by single combat; it is said by some authors that Labrosse was defeated, by others that he refused to fight, and was hung; and by others, again, that he confessed to having caused the death of the

prince himself, and was then put to death.

Be that as it may, it is certain that the queen's innocence was declared proved, and that she lived happily with the king afterwards.

Charles of Anjou, King of Naples, was daily increasing in power; he had bought the title of King of Jerusalem, and had conquered Sicily and Naples, till then governed by the imperial house of Suabia. In this he had been opposed by Prince Conradin, whom he took prisoner and beheaded. Already disliked by the Sicilians, this act caused a general hatred of Charles and of the French, and a conspiracy was formed and headed by John of Procida, to expel Charles and put Pedro III., of Spain, upon the throne. Everything being ready, Monday in Easter week, 1282, was fixed for a general massacre of the French. At the sound of the Vesper bells, the massacre began, about 8,000 people were killed throughout the island, one town only, Sperlinga, gave shelter to a few fugitives, and it is said only two Frenchmen escaped; William de Porcelets, and Scalambre. Charles, aided by Philip, determined to punish the Sicilians, but Spain helped them, and the contest ended by Peter of Aragon being crowned. Philip III. then marched towards Spain, but he was attacked by a fever which broke out in his army, and he died at Perpignan in 1285, aged 40 years.

By Isabella, of Aragon, Philip had three sons: Philip IV. succeeded him, Charles of Valois, and Louis died by poison; by Maria of Brabant his children were, Louis Count of Evreux, and Margaret married Edward I. of England.

By the death of Alphonso of Poitiers, Philip inherited the provinces of Poitou, Auvergne, and Toulouse.

It is remarkable that in this reign a commoner was first

ennobled, in the person of Raoul de Crépy, goldsmith to the king.

PHILIP IV., THE FAIR.

1285-1314.

AFTER a long peace between France and England, a quarrel between an English and a Norman sailor caused a rupture. Philip IV. summoned the English sailor to appear before a French tribunal, but Edward of England replied there were judges in his provinces who should pronounce sentence upon the accused. The French king upon receiving this reply, sent troops to take possession of Guienne, and himself marched against the Flemings, allies of the English, and gained a victory over them in 1297. The treaty of Montreuil-sur-Mer, signed in 1299, left to Philip the places he had taken in Aquitaine. Margaret, sister of the king, married Edward I., and his daughter, Isabella, the Prince Edward, who became Edward II.

The cruelty of Philip towards Flanders, caused the inhabitants to revolt, and 1,500 Frenchmen were massacred at Bruges. Robert of Artois marched into Flanders, but lost the battle of Courtray, 1302, in which both he and his son perished. After the battle 4,000 gilt spurs, worn only by knights and nobles, were collected on the field by the Flemings, and suspended in the church at Courtray. In 1304 the Flemings were defeated at Mons-en-Puelle; they were obliged to agree to the conditions of peace imposed by Philip, and to give up to him Lisle and Douai. An angry war of words now rose between Philip and the Pope Boniface VIII., relative to a levy of subsidies made by the king; an insulting bull of the Pope's was torn up in the council chamber by Robert of

Artois at the commencement of the troubles in Flanders; the family of the Colonna, exiled by Boniface, were received and protected by Philip, who also confined the Pope's legate at Senlis. Boniface then threatened to lay the kingdom under an interdict. Philip assembled the nobles, the clergy, and the people at Notre Dame de Paris, 1302, to debate upon the measures to be adopted. This assembly was called the States General. The assembly condemned the conduct of the Pope, and Philip, who feared excommunication, sent men devoted to his cause into Italy to seize the Pope; he was suddenly invested in the city of Anagnia, but he refused the conditions offered by the king, saying "Here is my neck; here is my head; betrayed like Jesus Christ, at least I will die Pope." He was delivered by his partizans, but died very soon after at Rome.

The Templars, a religious and military order, founded at the time of the Crusades, were persecuted by Philip. They had been established to protect Jerusalem and pilgrims to the Holy Land, from the infidels, but at this time they lived as monks and enjoyed immense possessions and riches in France. Philip, afraid of their power, determined to suppress the Order. All the knights then in France, were arrested on the same day, and were accused of frightful crimes; some denied everything, others confessed and then retracted. More than one hundred were burnt to death, among whom was their grand master, de Molai; while at the stake de Molai is said to have summoned the Pope, Clement V., to appear before the tribunal of God in forty days, and the king before the end of the year. All their possessions were confiscated to the crown, and the Order abolished by the Pope.

Philip died in 1314, leaving three sons, Louis X., Philip

V., and Charles IV., and one daughter, Isabella, wife of Edward II. of England. The government of Philip IV. had been very oppressive; he increased the taxes, and debased the coinage; the royal power became almost absolute.

LOUIS X., THE BOISTEROUS.

1314-1316.

Louis X. was the first king who had the title of King of France and Navarre, which last kingdom he possessed in right of his mother Jane, Queen of Navarre.

Charles of Valois, uncle to Louis, took the chief direction of affairs. The treasury having been found nearly empty at the accession of Louis, Enguerrand de Marigny, minister to the late king, was accused of theft, and condemned to be hung by Charles of Valois. Some years after Charles, suffering from a dangerous malady, caused himself to be carried through the streets of Paris, and distributed alms to the people, saying, "Good people, pray to God for Enguerrand de Marigny and Charles of Valois."

In order to augment his revenues, Louis X. sold their liberty to the serfs in all the royal domains, but as these unfortunate people would not pay for a blessing they did not know the value of, their goods and cattle were seized and sold, and a law was then made to oblige them to purchase their enfranchisement.

Louis died after a short reign of two years; it is supposed he was poisoned. He left one daughter, Jane, who married Philip, Count of Evreux.

PHILIP V., THE LONG.

1316-1322.

PHILIP V., Count of Poitiers, second son of Philip IV., and