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long, of a grayish brown color above, with irregular series of whitish spots and grayish white below; ugly as it is, some people eat it. This was well known to the ancients, and Aristotle correctly describes the gall bladder as larger than in most other fishes; it is also called callionymus by the old authors, and is proverbially referred to by dramatic writers as the emblem of an angry man; the bile was formerly supposed to possess great medicinal virtues in defective vision and hearing, and in arresting fungous growths. On the coast of South Carolina has been found the U. anoplos (Cuv.), about 2 inches long, greenish above with minute black dots, and silvery below; the cheeks are unarmed. These fishes live on the bottom in deep water, burying all but the head in the sand or mud, and there lying in wait for prey; they are voracious, and like other ground fish some have sensitive barbels about the mouth; though the gills are widely open, they live a long time out of water; some have a slender fleshy filament in front of the tongue, which can be protruded, probably to attract fishes within reach of their jaws, like the cutaneous appendages on the head of the goose fish (lophius).

STARK. I. A N. E. co. of Ohio, drained by the Tuscarawas river and its branches; area, 570 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 42,976. The surface is undulating, and the soil a rich, sandy loam. Coal and limestone are abundant. Swine are largely exported, and it produces more wheat and butter than any other county in the state. The productions in 1850 were 590,594 bushels of wheat, 578,171 of Indian corn, 414,434 of oats, 41,746 tons of hay, 275,664 lbs. of wool, and 1,211,021 lbs. of butter. There were 5 newspaper offices, 98 churches, and 13,290 pupils attending public schools. It is intersected by the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago, and the Cleveland and Pittsburg railroads, and the Ohio canal. Capital, Canton. II. A N. W. co. of Ind., drained by the Yellow and Kankakee rivers; area, 432 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 557; in 1860, 2,195. The surface is level and in many places marshy, with several small lakes, and the soil is fertile. The productions in 1850 were 3,153 bushels of wheat, 11,170 of Indian corn, and 698 tons of hay. Capital, Knox. III. A N. W. co. of Ill., intersected by the Spoon river; area, 290 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 9,004. The surface is partly prairie and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 54,327 bushels of wheat, 312,475 of Indian corn, 50,703 of oats, and 5,630 tons of hay. Capital, Toulon.

STARK, JOHN, an officer in the American revolution, born at Londonderry, N. H., Aug. 28. 1728, died at Manchester, N. H., May 8, 1822. In 1752 he went with 3 friends on a hunting expedition to Baker's river in the N. part of the state remote from the settlements, and while separated from his companions was captured by the St. Francis Indians, and remained with them several months until ransomed by the Massachusetts commissioners.

During his stay with the Indians he became very popular among them by his frequent exhibitions of courage and independence, and was adopted into the tribe. In 1754 he joined the rangers under Major Rogers in the war against the French and Indians, in 1756 was made a lieutenant, and in 1757 a captain, distinguishing himself by his bravery and coolness in several severe engagements. He rendered efficient services in bringing off the troops after the ill-fated expedition to Ticonderoga under Lord Howe in 1758, and was actively employed in the subsequent campaign of Gen. Amherst; and in 1760, the war being virtually closed, he retired from the service, and was not again conspicuous until the outbreak of the revolution. In 1775, on receipt of the intelligence of the beginning of hostilities, he hastened to Boston after directing the volunteers in his neighborhood to rendezvous at Medford. Of those who followed him two regiments were formed, of one of which he was elected colonel, and at its head he thrice repulsed the veteran forces of the British army at Bunker hill. He afterward remained with his regiment at Winter hill until the British evacuated Boston in March, 1776. He was in the expedition against Canada, and remonstrated against Gen. Schuyler's retreat to Ticonderoga. In December he marched with his regiment under Gen. Gates to reënforce Gen. Washington. He led the van in the attack upon Trenton, and was in the battle at Princeton. In 1777, the time of his regiment having expired, he returned to New Hampshire and raised a new one; but being as he thought unjustly neglected by congress in the list of promotions, he retired from its service. He however received a vote of thanks from the New Hampshire legislature, and in a short time was placed in the independent command of the troops raised by New Hampshire to oppose the British advance from Canada. Acting upon the authority of the state and his own judgment, he firmly refused to obey the orders of Gen. Lincoln to march to the west of the Hudson, leaving Burgoyne's rear unmolested; and on Aug. 16, 1777, he fought the battle of Bennington, killing over 200 of the enemy and taking 600 prisoners and 1,000 stand of arms. For this brilliant action congress passed a vote of thanks to him and created him a brigadier-general, notwithstanding they had just previously passed a vote of censure for his disobedience of the orders of Gen. Lincoln. He joined Gen. Gates at Bemus's heights, but the term of his militia having expired, he was obliged to return to New Hampshire and recruit a new force, with which he cut off Burgoyne's retreat from Saratoga, and thus compelled him to surrender. In 1778 he was placed in command of the northern department; in 1779 and 1780 he served in Rhode Island and New Jersey, and at West Point, where he was a member of the court martial which condemned André; and in 1781 he again had command of the northern depart

ment, with his head-quarters at Saratoga. At the close of the war he retired to private life, and was not again connected with public affairs. With the exception of Sumter, he was the last surviving general of the revolution at the time of his death.-See "Life of John Stark," by Edward Everett, in Sparks's “ American Biography," 2d series, vol. i.

STARLING, or STARE, the common name of the conirostral birds of the family sturnidæ, and sub-family sturnina, of which the genus sturnus (Linn.) is the type; the family also includes the straight-billed birds like the grakles, oxpecker, red-winged blackbird, and satin bower bird, described in separate articles. In sturnus the bill is long, straight, and sharp, with flattened culmen and tip; wings long and pointed, with 1st quill spurious and 2d and 3d nearly equal; tail short and nearly even; tarsi strong and broadly scaled; toes long, including the hind one, the outer united at the base; claws long, curved, and sharp. In habits the starlings resemble the smaller species of the crow family, and the food consists of worms, snails, insects, seeds, and fruits; they are docile in captivity, and may be taught to repeat a few words and to whistle short tunes. They are confined to the old world, migrating in large flocks, preferring swampy places; the flight is rapid and even, accompanied toward evening by singular circular evolutions; the note is a shrill whistle, with an occasional chatter or imitation of the cry of other birds and of animals; the nest is made of dried grass, in holes of trees or old buildings, and the eggs are 4 to 6. The best known species is the common starling (S. vulgaris, Linn.), about 8 inches long, of a black color, with purple and greenish reflections, and spotted with buff; the female is much less brilliant, and the young males are brownish gray. This well known, handsome, and sprightly bird is found from N. Europe to S. Africa, and in E. Asia, occurring in as large flocks as the allied grakles (quiscalus) in North America; in England it often migrates south in October, returning in March; it is frequently kept in cages; the flesh is disagreeable; the eggs are pale blue. -The American starling (sturnella Ludoviciana, Swains.) has been described under MEADOW LARK. In the genus pastor (Temm.) the bill is shorter and more curved; it contains about a dozen species in the old world, with the habits of the preceding genus, also the one of seeking insects on the backs of cattle. The rosy starling (P. roseus, Temm.) is about 8 inches long, with the head, neck, quills, and tail black with violet gloss, and the rest of the plumage delicate rosecolored; the head is crested, and the bill and legs yellowish. It is found in S. E. Europe, and in the warm parts of Asia and Africa; in some places it is held in great veneration for the enormous quantity of noxious insects, especially locusts, which its flocks devour.

STARR, a S. co. of Texas, bounded S. W. by the Rio Grande, which separates it from the Mexican state of Tamaulipas; area, 4,420 sq.

m.; pop. in 1860, 2,406, of whom 6 were slaves. It is well adapted to grazing and to the cultivation of cotton, corn, and sugar cane. Large droves of wild horses are found on the prairies. Capital, Rio Grande City.

STARVATION. See ABSTINENCE.

STASSART, GOSWIN JOSEPH AUGUSTIN, baron, a Belgian statesman and author, born in Mechlin, Sept. 2, 1780, died in Brussels, Oct. 16, 1854. He completed his education in Paris, and was appointed successively intendant in the Tyrol (1805), successor of Bignon in Berlin (1808), and prefect of the department of the Bouches de la Meuse (1811). He took part as an officer of artillery in the defence of Paris (1814), offered his services to the emperor of Austria after the first restoration, attached himself again to Napoleon as envoy to Austria and master of requests during the Hundred Days, and on the second restoration retired to Namur and devoted himself to literary studies. He represented Namur in the second chamber at the Hague from 1821 to 1830, and supported the opposition. After the Belgian revolution of 1830, he was appointed governor of the provinces of Namur and Brabant, was president of the senate from 1831 to 1838, was sent as envoy extraordinary to the court of Turin in 1840, and lived in retirement from 1841. His writings, including Idylles (1800), Penseés de Circé (1814), Fables (1818), and treatises on agriculture and archæology, were collected by Dupont-Delporte (Paris, 1855).

STATEN ISLAND. See RICHMOND CO., N. Y.

STATICS. See MECHANICS.

STATISTICS, the science which has for its office the collection and arrangement of facts relative to the physical, social, political, financial, intellectual, and moral condition and resources of a state or nation. Some departments of statistical knowledge are of very ancient origin. No nation has made any considerable advance toward civilization, which has not at stated periods taken a census more or less complete of its inhabitants. That such statistical records were kept by the Jews, the Greeks, and the Romans, there is abundant evidence. In later times, the first writer on statistics was the Venetian doge Tommaso Mocenigo, who in 1421 collected the materials for a memoir on the situation of different empires, their monetary systems, finances, public debts, &c. In 1467 Francisco Sansovino published a statistical work entitled Del governo e amministrazione di diversi regni e republiche (4to., Venice, 1467), which was translated into several languages and often reprinted. During the next century Ventura, Paruta, and Giovanni Botero, all Italians, wrote on the subject. Botero's Relazioni universali (Rome, 1592) was translated into most of the languages of Europe. Pierre Davity, a French writer, published in 1621-22 a valuable work on the geography, government, finances, religion, and customs of the principal countries of the world.

Hans de Laet in 1624 commenced the publication in Holland by the Elzevirs of his "Republics," a series of statistical works, and was followed during the 17th century by Conring, Bose, Beckmann, and Gastel in Germany, by De Luca and Everard Otto in Holland, and by Oldenburg in Switzerland, whose Thesaurus Rerumpublicarum (4 vols. 8vo., Geneva, 1675) was an excellent compilation of statistical matters. In 1749 Gottfried Achenwall delivered lectures on statistics in the university of Göttingen, and gave the name (Ger. Staat, state) to the science. Conring, it is stated, had lectured on the subject nearly a century before; but Achenwall systematized it, and prepared a treatise for the use of the students of the university (Staatsverfassung der Europäischen Reiche im Grundrisse), which passed through 7 editions in the next 50 years. Walch and Reinhard also published text books on the subject, soon after, for their respective universities. A student of Achenwall, Professor Schlözer, developed the science more fully than his teacher, but died before his great work, "Theory of Statistics" (Göttingen, 1804), was completed. In England, the first statistical work of note was by Smollett, who published "The Present State of all Nations" (8 vols. 8vo., London, 1768). Gatterer (Göttingen, 1773), Niemann (Altona, 1807), and Leopold Krug (Berlin, 1807) have written able works on the science. Luden (Göttingen, 1812 and 1817) has been one of its most vehement assailants. Among the statistical writers of the present century, those who occupy the first rank are Melchior Gioja, the author of Nuovo prospetto delle scienze economiche (6 vols. 4to., Milan, 1815-'19) and Filosofia della statistica (2 vols. 4to.); Hassel, Lehrbuch der Statistik der Europäischen Staaten (4 vols., Weimar, 1812-'18), and several other geographical and statistical works; Stein, Manuel de géographie et de statistique (3 vols. 8vo., Leipsic, 1833); Schubert, professor at Königsberg, Staatenkunde von Europa (6 vols., Königsberg, 1835-45); Meusel, Literatur der Statistik (2 vols., Leipsic, 1806-'7); Malchus, Statistik der Staatskunde (Stuttgart, 1826); Schnabel, a Bohemian writer, Statistique générale des états Européens (2 vols. 8vo., Prague, 1829); Herbin and Peuchet, Statistique de la France (7 vols., Paris, 1803); Adriano Balbi, various comparative statistical works on Por tugal, France, Russia, the British empire, &c. (Paris, 1822-'9); Berghaus, author of Allgemeine Lander- und Völkerkunde, of Staatenkunde, and numerous other works, and editor of Annalen der Erd-, Völker- und Staatenkunde (1830-'43), Geographisches Jahrbuch, and other periodicals; Becker, author of numerous works on Austrian statistics; Dieterici, chiefly on the statistics of Prussia and the Zollverein; Charles Dupin, Forces productices et commerciales de la France (2 vols. 4to., Paris, 1832), and other works; J. H. Schnitzler, Essai d'une statistique générale de l'empire de Russie (Strasbourg and St. Peters

burg, 1829), and Statistique générale, méthodique et complète de la France (4 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1842-'6); Maurice Block, Statistique de la France (2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1860); J. R. McCulloch, the author of many statistical works in English of great value; John McGregor, "Commercial Statistics" (5 vols. 8vo., London, 1848-'50), and other works; the Rev. John Clay, author of several works on prison statistics; Léon Faucher, author of numerous statistical contributions to the Journal des économistes; W. Newmarch, editor of the "Journal of the Statistical Society;" and in the United States, T. Pitkin, A. Seybert, J. S. Fisher, J. D. B. De Bow, Freeman Hunt, Dr. J. Thomas, Dr. J. Chickering, T. P. Kettell, J. S. Homans, J. C. G. Kennedy, Dr. J. G. Cogswell, and Dr. Edward Jarvis.-Within a few years past, societies for the collection of statistics have been established in most of the countries of Christendom. The statistical society of London was founded in 1834, and has since 1837 published a quarterly journal. The Parisian society commenced in 1842 the publication of a monthly periodical, the Journal des économistes, which has a deservedly high reputation. In the United States there is a genealogical and statistical society at Boston, which published for some years a quarterly "Register;" a geographical and statistical society at New York, which issues a quarterly "Bulletin ;" and several periodicals devoted in part to special statistics, such as the "American Journal of Science and Arts," the "American Journal of Education," the "Merchants' Magazine," the "Bankers' Magazine," "De Bow's Commercial Review," the "Mining Magazine," and the "United States Insurance Gazette and Magazine." The British association for the advancement of science has had a statistical section since 1833; the American association has a similar section; and the encouragement of the collectors of statistical matters is one of the avowed means by which the Smithsonian institution proposes to diffuse knowledge among men.

STATIUS, CECILIUS. See CECILIUS STATIUS. STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS, a Roman poet of the time of Domitian, whose birth has been placed in A. D. 61, and death in A. D. 96, though there is only uncertain evidence for either statement. His father was a preceptor of Domitian, by whom the son was patronized. In the Alban contests he 3 times gained the victory. Juvenal is the only ancient author who mentions him (Satire vii. 82). It has been stated, but without good evidence, that he was a Christian, and that the emperor stabbed him with a stilus in a moment of anger. His extant works are: Silvarum Libri V., a collection of 32 poems on passing events, divided into 5 books; Thebaidos Libri XII., an epic poem, founded upon the legendary account of the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, of which the 1st book was translated into English by Pope; and Achilleidos Libri II., an epic poem never finished. There are no

good editions of Statius, the best being that found in Lemaire's series of Latin classics (4 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1825-30). Five books of the "Thebaid" have been translated into English by Thomas Stephens (8vo., London, 1648), and the entire poem by W. L. Lewis (2 vols. Svo., Oxford, 1767 and 1778). The "Achilleid" has been translated by Howard (8vo., London, 1660).

STATUARY. See SCULPTURE. STATUTE OF FRAUDS. See FRAUDS, STATUTE OF.

STATUTES OF LIMITATION. See LIMITATION, STATUTes of.

STAUDENMAIER, FRANZ ANTON, a German theologian and philosopher, born at Danzdorf, Würtemberg, Sept. 11, 1800, died in Freiburg, Baden, Jan. 19, 1856. He studied at the university of Tübingen, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1827. In 1828 he was appointed tutor in the theological seminary at Tübingen, in 1830 ordinary professor of theology in the newly created theological faculty of the university of Giessen, in 1837 ordinary professor in the university of Freiburg, and in 1843 also a canon of the cathedral church of that city. In 1851 he was elected a member of the first chamber of the legislature of Baden. His first work was a "History of the Election of Bishops" (Geschichte der Bischofswahlen, Tübingen, 1830), with particular reference to the rights claimed by Christian princes. His Encyklopädie der theologischen Wissenschaften (Mentz, 1834; 2d ed., 1840) is the only German work of the kind in Catholic literature. His work on the "Spirit of Christianity" (Der Geist des Christenthums, Mentz, 1835; 5th ed., 1855) has had a very extensive circulation, and has been translated into several foreign languages. The most important of his works is that on "Systematic Theology" (Die christliche Dogmatik, 4 vols., 1844-52; not complete), in which he attempts to harmonize the results of modern philosophy with the doctrines of the Catholic church. His other principal works are: Scotus Erigena und die Wissenschaft seiner Zeit (vol. i., Frankfort, 1840; not completed); Die Philosophie des Christenthums (vol. i., Mentz, 1840; not completed); Darstellung und Kritik des Hegel'schen Systems (Mentz, 1844); and Der Protestantismus in seinem Wesen und seiner Entwickelung (Freiburg, 1846). Staudenmaier has also been a contributor to journals of Catholic theology, and to the Protestant "Journal for Philosophy and Speculative Theology," edited by Fichte.

STÄUDLIN, KARL FRIEDRICH, a German theologian, born in Stuttgart, July 25, 1761, died in Göttingen, July 5, 1826. He studied theology and philosophy at the university of Tübingen, from 1786 to 1790 made several literary journeys through Germany, Switzerland, France, and England, and was appointed in 1790 professor of theology at the university of Göttingen, where in 1803 he was also made consistorial councillor. In his earlier years he

was a rationalist, but he gradually inclined to supernaturalism. His works are very numerous, and extend over nearly every department of theology; but those on church history are the most valued. Among them are: Kirchliche Geographie und Statistik (2 vols., Tübingen, 1804), the first scientific work on this subject; and Geschichte der theologischen Wissenschaften (2 vols., Göttingen, 1810-'11). He was also the editor of several theological journals.

STAUGHTON, WILLIAM, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Coventry, Warwickshire, England, Jan. 4, 1770, died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 12, 1829. At the age of 17 he published a small volume of "Juvenile Poems," and soon afterward entered the Bristol Baptist seminary to prepare for the ministry. He emigrated to South Carolina in 1793, and preached for nearly 17 months at Georgetown, S. C. In 1795 he removed to New York, and in 1797 took charge of an academy at Bordentown, N. J., and was ordained. Toward the close of 1798 he removed to Burlington, N. J., and in 1805 became pastor of the first Baptist church of Philadelphia, which increased so much under his ministry that its house of worship was several times enlarged, and three new churches were formed from it. With the last of these, the Sansom street church, Dr. Staughton identified himself, and continued there till 1823, preaching from 3 to 4 times every Sunday to audiences of several thousands, and 2 or 3 times during the week, and at the same time instructing 15 or 20 young men in theology, lecturing on botany, chemistry, and sacred and profane history in two female seminaries, editing wholly or in part two religious periodicals, and presiding or assisting at the meetings of numerous benevolent societies. In the autumn of 1823 he became president of Columbian college at Washington, D. C., which position he resigned in 1827, in consequence of the embarrassments of the college, which he had made extraordinary efforts to remove. He then returned to Philadelphia, and was soon afterward chosen president of the Baptist college and theological institution at Georgetown, Ky., but died on his way thither. He published little beside his numerous contributions to religious periodicals in prose and poetry, and 5 or 6 sermons and orations.

STAUNTON, a river in the S. part of Virginia, rising in Montgomery co., among the Alleghany mountains, flowing E. and S. E. through a pass in the Blue ridge, and with Dan river forming the Roanoke at Clarksville, Mecklenburg co. It is 200 m. long, and in the first 20 m. of its course has a fall of 1,000 feet.

STAUNTON, a town and the capital of Augusta co., Va., situated on a small tributary of the Shenandoah river, 120 m. W. N. W. from Richmond; pop. in 1850, 2,500; in 1860, 14,124. It is the oldest town in the valley of Virginia, having been incorporated in 1749, and is the seat of the western lunatic asylum and of the Virginia institution for the deaf and

dumb and the blind. It has 2 weekly newspapers, 10 or 12 churches, several banks and banking houses, 2 academies, and 2 seminaries. It is surrounded by a populous and rich agricultural region, and has an important local trade. There are mills, founderies, and manufactories of various kinds. The Virginia central railroad passes through it, and it is the proposed terminus of the Manassas Gap railroad, partially completed.

STAUNTON, SIR GEORGE LEONARD, an English diplomatist, born in Galway, Ireland, April 19, 1737, died in London, Jan. 14, 1801. He studied medicine and became a contributor to literary periodicals, and an intimate acquaintance of Dr. Johnson. He afterward held official position and practised medicine in the West Indies for several years. In 1774 he was attorney-general of Grenada, and when that island was taken by the French in 1779, he and Lord Macartney, the governor, were made prisoners, but were soon released and returned to England. In 1781 he went as confidential secretary of Lord Macartney to Madras. He made an advantageous treaty with Tippoo Saltan in 1784, for which he was raised to a baronetcy and received an annuity of £500 from the East India company. He was a member of Lord Macartney's embassy to China in 1792, of which he published an aceoant (2 vols. 4to., 1797).—Sir GEORGE THOMAS, an English author, son of the preceding, born in Salisbury, May 26, 1781, died in London, Aug. 10, 1859. He accompanied his father to China in 1792, entered the university of Cambridge on his return to England, and in 1799 went to Canton as secretary of the East India company's factory there, of which he afterward became president. In 1816 he was sttached to Lord Amherst's embassy to China, and from 1818 to 1852, with a few intermissions, was a member of parliament. His principal works are: "The Penal Code of the Chinese Empire" (4to., London, 1810); "Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Tartar Khan Tourgouth during the Years 1812'15" (1821); and "Miscellaneous Notices relative to China and the British Commercial Intercourse with that Country" (1822). A treatise on vaccination written by him in Chinese was the means of introducing its practice in some parts of the empire. He edited the "History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China," translated from the Spanish of Mendoza by Parke in 1588 (Hakluyt society, London, 1853).

STAUPITZ, JOHANN VON, the friend and patron of Luther, born at Meissen, died in 1524. He entered in early life the Augustinian order, obtained from the pope in 1501 general privileges for the newly established university at Wittenberg, and in 1508 by his influence caused Luther, a member of his order, to be called to one of the professorships. Luther gratefully acknowledges that in his spiritual struggles he found in Staapitz a kind adviser and guide. Staupitz

approved of the theses of Luther against the papal indulgences, though he did not publicly declare himself in favor of them. In 1518 he was with Luther at an assembly of his order at Heidelberg, and in the same year demanded at Augsburg that Luther should not be condemned unheard and untried. Soon after, however, fearing an adverse issue of the controversy, he withdrew to Saltzburg, where he became court preacher, and in 1522 abbot of a Benedictine convent. Whether, as some assert, he was shortly before his death bishop of Chiemsee, is doubtful. He is the author of two works, De Amore Dei and De Fide Christiana, in which a mystic tendency prevails.

STEALING. See LARCENY.

STEAM, the name applied generically to the vapor or non-permanent gas given off by any liquid, in consequence of the volatility of such liquid and the influence of heat upon it; and more especially when the vaporization takes place at temperatures at or above the boiling point of the substance so affected. In the recent progress of mechanical art and science, however, this term has come to designate in a specific sense the vapor of water, as applied or applicable to the performance of work, or to other mechanical or economic purposes. In connection with this subject see BOILING POINT, EVAPORATION, HEAT, and PNEUMATICS. In popular language, the visible mist forming when a vapor is discharged into the air, as a little way from the spout of a boiling kettle, or in a dense cloud above an engine "blowing off" steam, is also called steam. This visible mist is, however, really of the nature of cloud; being probably a collection in immense numbers of minute vesicles formed of water condensed from the vapor, and also enclosing vapor or air, and which, disseminated in the atmosphere, constitute an opaque and visible mass, in the same way as do the fine globules of a transparent oil when the latter is beaten up and mingled through water. Steam, properly so called, is perfectly transparent and colorless, as are the greater number of gases of all sorts; and hence it is always wholly invisible. Whenever a confined body or other volume of steam seems to become visible, the truth is that a portion of the vapor is condensed into water in fine drops, or in a haze or cloud; and though there may also be steam occupying the space through which this is diffused, it is the water or cloud only that is seen. The engineer and the general reader have thus alike to bear in mind that, in dealing with steam (proper), they have to do with a gaseous body which eludes the sight as completely as the purest atmospheric air. Perfect steam is, moreover, in no way moist, but is dry, as are the permanent gases; the moisture sometimes showing upon a solid surface it touches, or that has been plunged into it, being due to condensation. With such slight exceptions as are hereafter to be noted, steam has in a complete degree those properties of fluidity, mobility, elasticity, and equality of pressure in every

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