increase of 32 per cent. since 1850. Capital, Stafford Court House.

STAFFORD, HENRY, duke of Buckingham. See BUCKINGHAM, DUKES OF.

STAFFORD, WILLIAM HOWARD, viscount, an English statesman, born Nov. 30, 1612, executed on Tower hill, Dec. 29, 1680. He was the 2d son of Thomas, 20th earl of Arundel, the well known collector of the Arundelian marbles; and upon the death without issue of his brother-in-law Henry, 4th Baron Stafford, he succeeded in having the dignity conferred upon himself in right of his wife, who was at the same time created Baroness Stafford. In Nov. 1640, a few months later, he was created Viscount Stafford. He was brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, and adhered during the civil wars to the royal cause; but after the restoration, conceiving that he had not been rewarded according to his deserts, he was frequently found in opposition to the court, although he appears never to have played an important part as a legislator. He was, however, of sufficient prominence to be singled out by Titus Oates, the contriver of the "popish plot," as one of his chief victims. On Oct. 23, 1678, Oates deposed before the house of commons that upon the subversion of the kingdom by the Jesuits, Lord Stafford was to have the appointment of paymaster of the army; and on the 30th the accused nobleman was committed to the tower, with other Catholic peers against whom similar charges had been preferred. After lying two years in prison, he was brought to trial on a charge of high treason before his peers on Nov. 30, 1680, his 69th birthday. During a trial of 7 days he defended himself with an ability for which no one had given him credit; pointing out with such skill the weakness of Oates's evidence, that Evelyn, who was present, thought "such a man's testimony should not be taken against the life of a dog." But, as Dugdale and Tuberville, the other witnesses for the government, swore positively that Stafford had incited them to assassinate the king, a verdict of guilty was pronounced by a vote of 55 to 31. He was executed 3 weeks afterward; and such was the revolution in popular feeling which set in subsequent to his conviction, that, although he had been assailed by invective on the day of his trial, when he protested his innocence on the scaffold the spectators cried: "We believe you, my lord. God bless you, my lord." His eldest son was created earl of Stafford, which title expired with the 4th earl in 1762; and in 1825 (the attainder of Lord Stafford having been reversed in the previous year) his descendant Sir George William Jerningham succeeded to the barony of Stafford.

STAFFORDSHIRE, an inland and nearly central county of England, bounded by the counties of Chester, Derby, Leicester, Warwick, Worcester, and Salop; area, 1,250 sq. m.; pop. in 1861, 746,584. The principal towns are Stafford, the capital, Lichfield, Wal

sall, Wolverhampton, Dudley, Tamworth, Burton-upon-Trent, Uttoxeter, Cheadle, Hanley, Burslem, and Newcastle-under-Lyme. The chief river is the Trent, which traverses the county in a N. W. direction, and has several considerable tributaries. Much of the surface consists of moorlands, elevated in some places 1,000 feet above the level of the sea, running in ridges separated by valleys sloping toward the Trent; the land in the valley of the Trent is good. Staffordshire is an important manufacturing county, and coal, iron, copper, and lead mines are worked extensively. The leading manufactures are iron, hardware, and earthenware, of which last it is the chief seat in England, and which gives name to a division of the county called the Potteries. There is perhaps no article of ironmongery or hardware which is not produced in Staffordshire. The pottery works established by Josiah Wedgwood, and still carried on by his descendants, are in this county. The ale breweries of Burton-on-Trent are very extensive and celebrated. Staffordshire is connected with the surrounding counties by a perfect network of roads, canals, and railways. There are some remains of Roman antiquities. The county sends 4 members to parliament, beside 13 for the boroughs.

STAG, the common name of the red deer of Europe (cervus elaphus, Linn.) and its congeners. It is about 4 feet high at the shoulders, and of a general reddish brown color, tinged with grayish in the winter; on the rump is a pale spot extending a little above the tail; there is a blackish dorsal line, and on each side often a row of pale fulvous spots; the hair is brittle, and in old animals forms a kind of mane on the neck; the tail is moderate, the tear bag well developed, suborbital pit large, and the hoofs narrow, triangular, and compressed. The antlers are large and rounded, with an anterior basal and a median anterior snag, and the apex divided into 2 or more branches according to age; they are peculiar to the males, shed in the spring, and reproduced, sometimes to a weight of 24 lbs., by August. (For family characters see DEER.) It is a strong, swift, and vigilant animal, with a very acute sense of smell; it was formerly found in herds in the forests of the mountainous regions of temperate Europe, but is now rare except in the least inhabited parts, like the highlands of Scotland, where stag hunting is still a favorite sport with the privileged few. This in old times constituted the noble art of venerie, as distinguished from the more plebeian chase of the fallow deer and other species which resort to the plains more than the woods. Gestation continues 8 months; the young or calf is dropped in May, and is yellowish with white spots; the male is called a stag or hart, and the female a hind, the terms buck, doe, and fawn belonging properly to the fallow deer (dama vulgaris, Gesn.); the venison is coarser than that of the fallow deer. It has been found

fossil, with bones of the elephant and other pachyderms, in the Kirkdale cavern, the peat bogs of Ireland, and similar recent formations. It is represented in North America by the larger wapiti (C. Canadensis, Erxl.). (See WAPITI.) Other stags in the old world are the Barbary (C. Barbarus, Benn.), of N. Africa, of a dark brown color with back of haunches and obscure spots white; and the Nepaul (C. Wallichii, Cuv.), brown, with a large white spot on the rump. Others are found in India and Japan.

STAG BEETLE, the common name of the family lucanida, of the lamellicorn pentamerous coleoptera, of which the type is the genus lucaaus (Linn.). Many of the species are of considerable size, and have received their name from the large and powerful mandibles with which the males are furnished. The stag beetle of Europe (L. cervus, Linn.) is 2 inches long, exclusive of the mandibles, and is the largest and most formidable of the British beetles; the color is black, with brown elytra; the head is wider than the body; the mandibles corneous, arched, with 3 large and several smaller teeth, and used as instruments of offence; antennæ bent, pectinated, and 10jointed, tibiæ dentated along outer edge, and the tarsi ending in 2 hooks. They live in the trunks of trees by day, flying abroad at night, often into houses, where their sharp and staglike horns cause no little alarm; the females are smaller, with narrower head and much shorter mandibles. They are also called horn beetles and flying bulls. According to De Geer, they feed principally on the sweet juice spread over the leaves of the oak and exuding on the bark, which they obtain by means of the brushes of the under jaws; they are said to seize caterpillars and soft-bodied insects, and to suck their juices; they are very strong, and can pinch the finger pretty hard, but do not use their mandibles in this way unless provoked, and their punctures are not poisonous; they live only a short time in the perfect state, perishing soon after laying their eggs in the crevices of bark near the roots of trees. The larvæ are large and fleshy grubs with very thick body, arched, 13-ringed, and having a brown scaly head armed with 2 strong jaws with which they gnaw wood, reducing it to a coarse powder, and often doing much damage by boring into the trunks and roots of oaks and beeches; there are 6 scaly feet, attached to the first 3 rings; they are said to be 6 years in coming to their growth, and by some are regarded as the cossus of the Romans, a wormlike grub, according to Pliny, obtained from the oak and considered delicious food, but not coveted by modern epicures. The largest of the New England species is the L. capreolus (Linn.), usually called horn bug; it is about 11 inches long, without the mandibles, the latter being sickle-shaped and toothed; the color mahogany brown, smooth and polished. They appear in July and August. The larvae are 3 inches long when full grown, straw-colored,

with yellow head, brown jaws, and 9 stigmata; they live in the trunks and roots of apple trees, willows, and oaks, and are sometimes injurious. STAGNELIUS, ERIK JOHAN, a Swedish poet, born in the island of Oland, Oct. 14, 1793, died April 3, 1823. He was the son of a parish priest, afterward made bishop of Calmar, and received his education at the universities of Lund and Upsal. In 1815 he became a clerk in the Swedish office for ecclesiastical affairs, which position he held until his death. He died prematurely from excessive drinking. His poetical writings, including many in manuscript, were edited in 1824 by his friend Hammarsköld in 3 vols., and comprise epic or narrative poems, dramas, lyrics, ballads, and miscellaneous minor pieces. His reputation has greatly increased since his death, and he is now ranked among the Swedish classics. His entire works have been translated into German, and specimens of his poems are given in Howitt's "Scandinavian Literature."

STAHL, GEORG ERNST, a German chemist and physiologist, born in Anspach, Oct. 21, 1660, died in Berlin, May 14, 1734. He studied medicine at Jena, and became a lecturer there in 1684, professor of medicine, anatomy, and chemistry at Halle in 1694, and royal physician at Berlin in 1716. Professing as a pietist a disdain for all learning, he was yet the author of two theories prominent in the history of science. In his Theoria Medica Vera (Halle, 1707; new ed. by Choulant, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1831-3; translated into German by Ideler, 3 vols., Berlin, 1832-'3) he supposed the existence of an anima or immaterial principle resident in the body, creating its organization, and governing all its processes with reference to the final purpose of preserving life. Every corporeal movement, he said, is the product of a spiritual order. He invented also the phlogistic theory, which prevailed till the time of Lavoisier, in development and defence of which he published Zymotechnia Fundamentalis (1697), Experimenta et Observationes Chemica (1731), and numerous dissertations.

STAHL, JULIUS FRIEDRICH, a German statesman and author, born in Munich, Jan. 16, 1802, died at Brückenau, near Kissingen, Aug. 10, 1861. The name of his parents, who were Jews, was Schlesinger, but he adopted the name Stahl when in 1819 he was baptized into the Protestant church. He studied law, was appointed in 1827 Privatdocent in the faculty of law at Munich, in 1832 extraordinary professor at Erlangen, and in the same year ordinary professor at Würzburg. In 1840 he accepted a call to the university of Berlin. In 1848 he founded with Bethmann-Hollweg the German church diet, of which he was vicepresident until 1859, when a disagreement between the evangelical (low church) and the high Lutheran parties, of which latter he was the leader, led him to resign. In 1854 the king appointed him syndic of the crown, and a life member of the Herrenhaus (house of lords).

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He was also appointed in 1852 a member of the supreme ecclesiastical council of the Prussian state church, which position he retained until 1858, when he resigned. In politics he opposed with great vigor and talent the spread of democratic principles. His most important work is Philosophie des Rechts (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1830-'37), in which he develops his famous theory of a Christian state," which, according to him, is to aid the church by the secular arm in extending the dominion of Christianity, and in realizing its mission upon earth. In his work Die Kirchenverfassung, &c. (Erlangen, 1840), he declared himself in favor of an episcopal form of church government. In 1855 he had a controversy with Chevalier Bunsen, which, on account of the talent displayed on both sides, attracted general attention in literary circles. His last great work was Die Lutherische Kirche und die Union (Berlin, 1859).

STAHR, ADOLF WILHELM THEODOR, & German author, born in Prenzlau, Oct. 22, 1805. He was educated at Halle, and taught there till in 1836 he was invited to Oldenburg as professor in the gymnasium. He was chiefly occupied with the history and criticism of Aristotelianism, and published works thereon. An Italian journey furnished the subjects of Ein Jahr in Italien (3 vols., Oldenburg, 1847'50; 2d ed., 1853), and of a historical romance entitled Die Republikaner in Neapel (3 vols., Berlin, 1849), characterized by a German critic as a "poetical lava of rustic, martial, and revolutionary scenes." He has also written other æsthetic and historical works. He married the authoress Fanny Lewald in 1854, and settled in Berlin.

STAIR, LORD. See DALRYMPLE.

STALACTITE (Gr. orada¿w, to drop, to drip), and STALAGMITE (Gr. oradayμos, dripping, dropping), concretions of limestone formed by the water that percolates through fissures in the roofs of caves, carrying carbonate of lime in solution, which is left behind as the water evaporates. The collections thus formed on the roof itself and extending downward from it like icicles are called stalactites; those produced by the drippings upon the floor, and which rise in the form of mounds toward the roof, are called stalagmites. It is often the case that the two meet and form pillars, and sometimes broad sheets when the dripping follows a fissure in the roof or seams of stratification. In parts of Weyer's cave in Virginia the stalactites may thus be seen in parallel rows starting along the lines that mark the divisions between the steeply inclined strata in the roof; and in certain places lines of sheets are produced which reach from the roof to the floor. Some of them are so thin as to be translucent, and when struck produce a ringing sound. The cave of Adelsberg in Carniola is famous for the variety of its stalactitic forms, and among them are some remarkable examples of this character. The stalactites are seen hanging in

thin, transparent white sheets like linen, and one in particular is called the "curtain" from the striking resemblance in its flexures to the folds of a loose pendent sheet. Most of the grotesque figures in caves that give to these their chief interest, and suggest innumerable strange resemblances, are due to the varying forms of the groups of stalactites. In one place the pillars stand like trees in a grove; in another they suggest long colonnades and verandahs adorned with Gothic tracery; again they hang over the edge of a precipitous wall, resembling falling waters arrested in their course and turned into stone; and with every advancing step they present new and strange varieties. They are white and translucent like alabaster when the limestone that supplies their material is pure and white; but if this contain impurities, these are also taken along and deposited with the carbonate of lime. Thus are produced the various colors frequently seen in stalactites, and the concentric veins around their central axis which are brought to view in exposing a cross section by fracture. The common shapes of small stalactites are more like those of icicles, but in the interior the former are usually hollow for a foot or more from the upper end. This results from the water before it falls first evaporating around the outer edge of the drop or collection of drops, and thus causing the deposit of a ring of stony matter. Down the outer side of this more water gathers, continually adding new rings below, the cavity gradually contracting and finally terminating in a point. The upper portion gains in size by the partial evaporation of the water that flows down it, and thus the bluntness of the cone is increased. In places where the wind sweeps through the caves the regularity of the deposit is disturbed.

STALLBAUM, JOHANN GOTTFRIED, a German scholar and educator, born at Zaasch, Sept. 25, 1793. He was educated under Beck and Hermann at Leipsic, where he has been a teacher since 1820, and extraordinary professor in the university since 1840. He has published a highly esteemed critical edition of Plato (12 vols., Leipsic, 1821-'5), has edited several of the dialogues separately, and is the author of the introductions and annotations to Plato in the Bibliotheca Græca (9 vols., Gotha, 1827 et seq.). He has also edited Ruddiman's Institutiones Grammaticæ Latinæ (2 vols., 1823), Eustathius (5 vols., Leipsic, 1825-'30), and Terence (6 vols., 1830-'31); and he has written several treatises on education.

STAMEN, an essential organ in the inflorescence of phænogamous plants. The stamen consists normally of the filament and the anther, and where the corolla is present the stamens are situated immediately within it. Morphologically the stamen is a modified leaf, the filament being the midrib or petiole and the anther the blade or lamina. The anther is a closed receptacle secreting within itself a multitude of globules or grains of dust known

as the pollen (see POLLEN), and which are employed in the fecundation of the ovary. The stamen is subject to many modifications, and is reducible in its simplest form to mere pollen masses, as occurs in certain natural orders.

STAMFORD, a township and village of Fairfield co., Conn., lying near the mouth of Mill river, 40 m. S. W. from New Haven, and 36 m. N. E. from New York; pop. in 1860, 7,185. The New York and New Haven railroad traverses the village and the S. part of the township. There is a canal 180 rods long, 30 feet wide, and 7 feet deep, from the village to the bay, between Greenwich and Shiphan points. The township is drained by Mill and Miannus rivers. It has considerable coasting trade, and large manufactories of iron ware, wire, boots and shoes, dye stuffs, coal oil, carriages, woollen, and clothing. It is a favorite residence, especially in summer, of merchants and others engaged in business in New York. The village has a bank, a savings bank, a weekly newspaper, and 7 churches.

STAMMERING, a term generally applied to all kinds of defective utterance; a more exact use of language would, however, restrict it to the organic or symptomatic defects, in distinction from stuttering, which is properly an idiopathic or functional difficulty. Both stammering and stuttering may nevertheless be treated under the common title. The causes which lead to stammering are usually, though not always, organic; harelip, cleft palate, elongation of the uvula, enlargement of the tonsils, a deficiency or unusual position of the teeth, tumors of the tongue or cavity of the mouth, and inflammation or ulceration of the parotid glands, are the most frequent of these canses. Where the defect results from functional disturbance, its principal causes are general debility, paralysis either local or general, tetanic or other spasms; a rheumatic or neuralgic affection of the muscles of the face, jaw, tongue, lips, &c., or of the vocal cords; a condition of intoxication; chorea; or in some cases a habitual imitation of stammering. Stuttering, on the contrary, is seldom or never organic. The stutterer is often in perfect health, and the vocal organs are not in any way disessed or deformed. His difficulty consists in the momentary inability to pronounce certain words or syllables. The stoppage of sound usually takes place at the first syllable, though occasionally at the second or third. Words beginning with k, t, g, d, p, b, or m, usually give the stutterer the most trouble, because they require the closing of the lips or the pressing of the tongue against the roof of the mouth for their enunciation, and an immediate reopening for the vowel which follows; while he keeps the lips closed, and compresses the cavity of the mouth in the attempt to force out the sound. Most stutterers can sing without difficulty, the action of the vocal organs being much less frequently interrupted in singing than in speaking. Stutterers may be classed

under two heads, mental or psychical and physical. The first class are influenced favorably or unfavorably by whatever affects their mental state. Under the stimulus of pleasant or joyful emotions, they experience little difficulty in conversation; under depressing influences, their utterance is seriously disturbed. The physical stutterer is rendered worse by unpleasant weather, great fatigue, vicious indulgence, and the excessive use of tobacco or alcoholic drinks. Among the causes of stuttering may be named abnormal excitability of the nervous system, diffidence, fear, and other kindred mental emotions; affections of the brain and spinal cord; and the involuntary imitation of chorea and ecstasy. Whatever tends to lessen the control of the individual over his muscles and nervous system will of course increase stuttering; and whatever develops the power of the will over the body will lessen it. The number of bad stammerers is estimated by Colombat at 1 in 5,000; but the number who suffer in a greater or less degree from defective utterance is certainly not less than 1 in 500. Only about of these are females.-The proper treatment of either stuttering or stammering is indicated by the cause which induces it. In the case of the stammerer there should be a thorough investigation for an organic cause, which if possible should be removed. Hence, the clipping of the uvula, the removal of a portion of the tonsils, or the excision of a wedge-shaped piece from a tongue too large for the mouth, the use of electrical or other remedies for the cure of paralysis, the cauterization of ulcers in the mouth, the removal of irregular or the insertion of false teeth, and the administration of tonics for debility, have each resulted in the cure of cases of stammering; but no one of these will answer for all or perhaps a majority of cases. stuttering also, the cause, when ascertained, will indicate to some extent the method of cure. Temperance and abstinence from indulgences which affect the nervous system are of course necessary. The muscles must be educated to uniform obedience to the will, and the will trained to steady and intelligent control over the muscles and nerves. A course of lessons in enunciation, by a capable teacher, will often effect a complete cure. In the case of the stupid or volatile, this training must be long continued, if it is to effect any permanent improvement. The various remedies which have been proposed, most of which have had a temporary but none a general and permanent success, would form an interesting chapter in the history of charlatanism. Dr. J. M. Warren of Boston lays down the rules that treatment for impediments of speech should be commenced between the ages of 8 and 12; and that "little permanent advantage will be gained, in the majority of cases, unless the treatment be resolutely persevered in for one or two years."

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STAMP ACTS, laws for the raising of revenue by requiring the use of paper or parchment

bearing a government stamp for various legal and other purposes. Such laws were introduced into England, in the reign of William and Mary, from Holland, and from that time to the present have multiplied, until now all or nearly all legal or commercial instruments are embraced within their requirements, as well as many things which cannot be thus described; as newspapers, legacies (by means of stamped receipts), and admission to practice as a physician, advocate, barrister, or attorney. So notaries public, bankers, pawnbrokers, and others must pay for a yearly license, which is given them on stamped paper or parchment. The provisions of these acts have varied very much from time to time. When the government stood in especial need of money, they were extended more widely, and the revenue from them increased. At present these acts are milder than formerly; but it is scarcely possible at this day 'to pursue any business, or enter into transactions, in England, without paying a tax to the government through a stamp. It is impossible to give here even a selection of the principal matters requiring stamps, and still less to enumerate them, the list in the recent consolidated acts covering more than 100 pages. The lowest amount noticed is one penny for a receipt of money over £2, and the highest is £22,500 on letters of administration on £1,000,000 property. The rate per centum varies considerably, being as a rule highest on the larger sums, but seems to be, in general, from less than one quarter of one per cent. to one per cent. The stamps are impressions made upon paper by the proper officers of government. If the instrument be written on parchment, the impression is attached to it. In a great number of cases, the instruments in blank and already stamped are bought at the stamp offices. In others, the instrument when properly prepared is brought to the office and stamped. The impression always states the price of the stamp, and sometimes the character or purpose of the document. It is obvious that such impressions may be easily forged, and it is said that they have been to a considerable extent. To prevent it, this forgery was made a capital offence by the act of William and Mary, and remained so until about 30 years ago, when the punishment of death was changed to that of transportation. An escape from the requirements of the acts is easily and certainly prevented by the provision that no document which needs a stamp and is without one can be offered in evidence or has any legal force whatever. And while the courts, regarding the stamp acts as penal instruments, apply to them the common rule of a strict interpretation against the act, they seem nevertheless to oppose and prevent the admission or use of any instrument so constructed as to evade payment of the duty; and the acts generally impose a penalty upon any evasion of their provisions.-As it is the purpose of the acts to raise a revenue in this way, they have multiplied, perhaps unnecessa

rily, the number of the documents required to give validity to a transaction; and questions of this kind are frequently before the courts. Thus, if the terms of a stamped agreement are varied, there must be a new stamp; and an affidavit used in one stage of a suit, if offered for use in a later stage, must be restamped. When the instrument may lawfully be stamped after it is executed, sufficient time is allowed; 21 days, for example, in an agreement not under seal. If a stamped instrument is lost, or withheld by an opposing party, an unstamped copy may be used in evidence. So a witness may use an unstamped receipt or other instrument to refresh his memory. If stamps are spoiled so that they cannot be used, they may be returned to the office, and will be paid for, in the absence of all fraud. While the acts, and the courts in their construction and application of them, aim at effectually preventing all fraud upon the revenue, they endeavor, so far as this is consistent with the safety of the revenue, to prevent fraud or injustice from the accidental and unintentional violation of the stamp acts. For this purpose many instruments erroneously believed to be properly stamped, or accidentally prevented from being so, may be subsequently stamped and thus acquire legal validity. Our readers will not forget that the endeavor of England to impose stamp duties upon her transatlantic colonies in 1765, was among the efficient causes of the revolution which resulted in their independence. Stamp acts, or analogous enactments, are widely used on the continent of Europe. In some countries, as in France, stamps appear to be used as well for the authentication of legal documents as for the purpose of revenue; and it is said that an important part of the income of the city of Paris is derived from this source. -This indirect method of raising a revenue has been much and earnestly discussed, and there are, of course, conflicting opinions as to its propriety or utility. It seems however to be too firmly established to be shaken. They who favor it generally rest their approval on the following grounds. It is easily collected, at small cost. It cannot be evaded without_great difficulty, and not to any great extent. By a careful discrimination it may be made to lay upon all business transactions an equal or proportional burden. This burden is borne by none but those who profit by the transactions upon which it rests; and while a poll tax must necessarily bear no proportion to the payer's means, and a property or income tax is always open to evasion or fraud to a great extent, and an excise on manufactured articles is very often cumbrous, expensive, and inconvenient, the impost levied by means of the stamp acts serves to produce a large revenue with a great impartiality, and a less cost and embarrassment than perhaps any other form of taxation now practised by civilized nations. The produce of stamp duties in Great Britain for 1860 was £8,285,257 148. 4d.