sions which he had acquired through his purchase of the confiscated estates of the Protestants. His dealings in these purchases show that, besides being a great general, he was a shrewd and unscrupulous man of business.

The offer which he made to the Emperor, to raise and equip at his own expense an army of 50,000 men, shows the resources that were at his command. We have seen in what manner he fulfilled his promise, and how the cruelties of his troops brought down upon him the storm at Ratisbon. With calm dignity the Duke retired to Prague, and lived there in gloomy splendour abiding his time. That he was brooding there upon some plan of revenge, may be inferred from the secret negotiations which he carried on with General Arnim, and through the medium of the Bohemian exile, Sesina Raschin, with Gustavus Adolphus. Owing to a characteristic want of mutual confidence, the negotiations led to no result, and thus Wallenstein, bent upon blotting out the disgrace of Ratisbon, was induced to accept for the second time the command of the imperial army, which, like the first, was his own creation.

The magic of his name proved as powerful as before. From all parts adventurers flocked to his standard; high and low, rich and penniless. Rank and creed made no difference as to promotion in Wallenstein's army: indeed many of his officers were Protestants. Bravery and ability alone determined the position of the soldiers. Wallenstein's troops overran the territories of friend and foe; like a swarm of locusts, they left the country through which they marched barren and desolate. The foreign element was strong in these dissolute masses. The outcasts of all European countries flocked to Germany to fill the ranks of the imperial army. The savage Cossacks from Russia, the rapacious Walloons, who were in those times what the Swiss mercenaries were in later days, and the most dreaded of all, the thievish Croats, who under Isolani formed the light cavalry, were present in large numbers. Rích adventurers, who raised a regiment at their own expense, as it were on speculation, were appointed colonels of their troops. Officers as well as soldiers had consequently the greatest interest in the continuance of the war. peace were established, and the army disbanded, the soldiers would then lose their livelihood, and the officers their chance of recovering the heavy expenses they had incurred. Such was the army of which Wallenstein was absolute master. It was only a man possessed of such qualities as Wallenstein, who could fill these barbarian hordes with respect, and consolidate such an unwieldy and heterogenous mass into a compact whole. He was not favoured by nature with a majestic and imposing exterior. He was rather above the middle height, thin, of a sallow complexion, with short dark hair, and small sparkling eyes, while the cunning lines around his mouth indicated his partial Slavonic descent, and, indeed, the Slavonic alloy in his character may be traced in his doublefaced and ambiguous dealings. It should be remembered that

If

his father only was German. The expression of his countenance was stern, and it was the mirror of his character, which did not brook contradiction. Blind and unconditional obedience to his will was with him the first duty of the soldier. Disobedience he punished severely, but prompt obedience found with him the most liberal reward. Thus his munificence gained him numerous zealous partisans. His gloomy silence and immovable calmness, and above all his application to the occult science of astrology, shed a prestige around him, which increased, if not his popularity, at least his authority amongst his troops. He possessed ali the qualities of a great general, and as a politician his views were more enlightened than was common in those days. He was also an excellent administrator, as may be seen from the letters which he wrote to his stewards. In the tumult of war he wrote directions how his estates should be administered. The consequence was, that his immediate subjects were in a much better condition than the inhabitants of any other part of Germany. When we consider that during the last years of his life he was tortured by intolerable pains from gout, we cannot help admiring his genius and the fortitude of his mind, which maintained its superiority over the sufferings of the body.

Wallenstein's conduct after the battle of Lützen made the insinuations of his enemies, the Jesuits, and the Spanish and the Bavarian Courts, that he meditated treason, and aspired to the crown of Bohemia, find ready credence with the Emperor. Accordingly Ferdinand II. sent the Councillor of War Questenberg to Pilsen, to induce Wallenstein to obey his orders. The Duke summoned a council of war, and, instigated by an able address of Illo, the officers unanimously signed a declaration, that it was utterly impossible to obey the imperial orders to march into Bavaria in the middle of winter. Wallenstein declared himself willing to lay down his command, if the Emperor should insist on his orders being obeyed. This resolution raised a complete storm among the officers. If the Duke laid down his command, where could they find a guarantee for recovering their large outlay in raising, equipping, and maintaining their troops?

Illo and Count Terzky readily undertook to persuade the Duke not to resign the command, and in return the officers gave a written promise to remain with Wallenstein and to support him at the risk of their lives and their fortunes. The Duke now declared his readiness to retain the command, and the generals and colonels, at a banquet given for that purpose by Illo and Terzky, on the 12th of January, 1634, signed a memorial containing an unconditional adherence to the generalissimo.

The Emperor, finding that Wallenstein also refused to listen to the remonstrances of the envoys, Pater Quiroga and Count Trautmannsdorf, to share his command with the King of Hungary, and to despatch 8,000 horse to protect the Cardinal Infante on his way through Germany, and being informed by Piccolomini of the pro

ceedings at Pilsen, appointed Gallas commander of the army, dismissed Wallenstein, and condemned him to death with Illo and Terzky. This patent, which was signed on the 24th January, was to be kept secret till the time for its execution should arrive.

At the beginning of February, Wallenstein again summoned his officers to Pilsen, to come to a final resolution. Gallas now thought the time had come for making use of his power. He left Pilsen under the pretext of bringing back Altringer (or rather Aldringer), who, feigning illness, had refused to appear, but instead of returning, he joined Altringer in the south of Bohemia.

At the same time the Emperor published a manifesto against Illo, Terzky, and Kinsky, in which he ordered the troops to obey the commands of Gallas, Altringer, Maradas, and Piccolomini.

As soon as it became known that the Generalissimo was disgraced, the majority of his soldiers abandoned his standard en masse, and took the oath of allegiance to the Emperor. The garrisons of Prague and other important places also declared for Ferdinand II. Wallenstein might still have retained a considerable force, but he blindly trusted to the attachment of his troops and officers, and lost his time in waiting for a favourable junction of the planets.

His only hope of safety was in a junction with the Swedes and Saxons. He, therefore, proceeded to the fortified town of Egra, on the frontier of Saxony, and despatched the Saxon Field-Marshal Franz Albrecht von Lauenburg, who had been sent to him as envoy by the Elector of Saxony, to inform Bernhard of Weimar of his position.

On his way to Egra, Wallenstein met Colonel Buttler, who according to previous orders from him was marching on Prague. The Duke forced Buttler to accompany him to Egra, thus bringing on his own fate.

As soon as Buttler knew that sentence of death was passed against Wallenstein, he determined to execute it. On arriving at Egra, he conspired with Gordon, commander of that place, and with Major Leslie, to murder the Duke together with his friends Terzky, Illo, Kinsky, and Captain Neuman.

The following day Gordon gave a banquet at the castle to these four officers, and at a given signal, soldiers posted in the adjoining room rushed in, and murdered the victims who were pointed out to them.

Soon after, Deveroux and Major Geraldino hastened to the house of the Burgomaster Pachhälbel, where Wallenstein was residing, and forced their way to his room. The Duke had just been roused from his sleep by the shrieks of the Countesses Terzky and Kinsky, who had been informed of the fate of their husbands. He rose from his bed, and in a few seconds the door of his room was burst open, and Deveroux rushed in with a halbert in his hand. "You must die!" cried the assassin. Wallenstein stretched out his arms, and without uttering a word received the fatal weapon in his body.

The question of Wallenstein's guilt, and the Emperor's participation in his assassination, has not yet been clearly solved. Both have found zealous defenders, who in their eagerness to exculpate their clients have gone far beyond all reasonable limits. Wallenstein's conduct was throughout ambiguous, and calculated to excite suspicion. That he aspired to the crown of Bohemia, and that he negotiated with the Saxons and Swedes with direct treacherous views against the House of Austria, has by no means been proved. It is true, that shortly before his death he openly revolted against the Emperor, but that was in self-defence.

The evidence against Ferdinand II. is strengthened by the fact, that he summoned all his generals to rid him of the Duke, that he sanctioned Wallenstein's death, and rewarded the assassins, by giving them the estates of those whom they had killed, and conferring on them great distinction. Nevertheless he ordered three thousand masses to be read for the repose of the soul of the murdered Duke of Friedland.

III.

ANALYSIS OF THE DRAMA.

THE trilogy of "Wallenstein" is generally in accordance with history, and the characters are, with a few exceptions, historical. The action comprises a space of four days. The "Lager" begins early in the morning, and is followed by the first act of the "Piccolomini." The time of the second act is about noon of the same day; and that of the third and fourth act is the evening. The time of the fourth act lasts till daybreak of the second day, in which the fifth act of the "Piccolomini," as well as the first and second act of "Wallensteins Tod" also take place. The third day comprises the third act of "Wallensteins Tod." The scene of action is now removed from Pilsen to Egra, where the fourth and fifth acts pass during the fourth day. According to history there was an interval of two days between Wallenstein's departure from Pilsen and his arrival at Egra. The Lager," this admirable introduction, gives us a general picture of the army and the spirit which pervaded it; and this is the reason why the soldiers, who represent not so much individual characters as the type of the component parts of the army, are not even distinguished by names, and not one of them subsequently reappears in the drama. The sententious "Wachtmeister," who endeavours to assume towards his companions in arms the grand and imposing manner of the Generalissimo, as well as the "Trompeter,' his faithful echo, are devoted to Wallenstein, and acknowledge him alone as their chief. Both of them belong to Terzky's regiment. The

66

"Jägers," these soldiers of fortune, are the type of the majority of the soldiers, who see in the profession of arms the shortest road to an easy life and honours and distinctions, while the honest German Arquebusiers are the representatives of the loyal and humane element in the army. The First Dragoon, who follows "the star of fortune," clearly indicates what motives induced these foreigners to join the banner of Wallenstein; and we can hardly be surprised when we find the Irish captains Deveroux and Macdonald, ready to forsake and murder their Generalissimo as soon as they are told that fortune no longer smiles on him. The rapacious Croat presents an excellent picture of these thievish, barbarous, ignorant hordes, who are more dreaded for their ruthless brutality than any other soldiers, and are despised by their comrades. The most ideal character in the "Lager" is the Cuirassier, who represents the poetry of warfare, like his prototype Max. The aversion of the Jesuit party to Wallenstein is forcibly pourtrayed in the famous Capuchin sermon. This sermon is after the model of those of the celebrated Austin friar, Abraham à Santa Clara, a volume of whose works Goethe had sent to Schiller. This gave rise to the report that the sermon was the work of Goethe.

66

It is evident that such a general picture is necessary in order to convey an idea of Wallenstein's power, and the disposition of his army, which circumstances combined to lead the Duke to an act of treason, for, as the poet says,,,Sein Lager nur erkläret sein Verbrechen." At the same time our interest is excited in the man himself, whom we have seen, as it were, by the reflex of his genius. In the " Piccolomini," we have the general characters of the Lager" individualised; the same interests are expressed, but more tempered. The most zealous partisans of the Duke are Illo and Terzky. History records that they possessed all his confidence, and that Terzky was a very able and prudent negotiator, and far above what he is represented in the drama, where we find him and Illo committing a palpable fraud. But we must do justice to the injured. reputation of these brave soldiers, and state that the fraud with regard to the clause of reservation in the famous declaration of Pilsen has not been proved. Of the four officers, described in the Dramatis Personæ as generals in Wallenstein's army, Colalto, a Venetian, died in 1630. The others survived the Generalissimo, and were rewarded for their loyalty to the Emperor with rich presents from the spoils of the Duke. The character of Count Ludwig Isolani (or rather Isolano), the Croatian general, is exquisitely and faithfully drawn. The scene between him and Octavio is a masterpiece, and shows the principles which led him to change from side to side.

The councillor of war, Baron Questenberg, was a Bohemian, and most influential in the council. His mission to Wallenstein was of a more friendly nature than it is described in the drama, where he admirably represents the perfect diplomatist and courtier.

The "Kellermeister" is a dramatic fiction. He is the mouthpiece of the patriotic malcontents of Bohemia. In his interpretation of the