The qualifications for Representatives and Senators are noted on page 184. The number of representatives depends on and increases with the population of the States; and from time to time new distributions and new seats are appointed, based on the returns of the census, which is taken every ten years. Each State must have at least one representative; and until it has sufficient population to entitle it to become a State, it is called a territory, and may send a delegate to Congress, but the powers and privileges of such delegates are less than those of representatives. Originally it was enacted that the number of representatives should not exceed one for every 30,000 persons, and in 1787 the House contained sixty-five members. But by the last act of apportionment, based on the census of 1880, the number of members was 325 for a total population of 49,983,763 citizens. These are divided among the different States as follows: New York has 34 representatives; Pennsylvania, 28; Ohio, 21; Illinois, 20; Missouri, 14; Indiana, 13; Massachusetts, 12; Kentucky, Texas, and Iowa, 11 each; Virginia, Georgia, and Tennessee, 10 each; North Carolina, Michigan, and Wisconsin, 9 each; Alabama, 8; New Jersey, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Kansas, 7 each; Maryland, Louisiana, and California, 6 each; Vermont, Arkansas, and Minnesota, 5 each; Maine, Connecticut, and West Virginia, 4 each; Nebraska, 3; New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Florida, 2 each; and Delaware, Oregon, Nevada, and Colorado, r each. These are elected by each State is divided

equal electoral districts. That is to say,

into as many districts as it is entitled to representatives, these districts being so limited as to contain as nearly as possible an equal number of inhabitants; and from each one member is elected. The arrangements are left in the hands of each

separate State, but the election must take place every second year, in November. The sessions of Congress always begin in March. The voting for representatives is by ballot, and every citizen of full age is entitled to a vote by his manhood. Each elected member is entitled to a salary of 5000 dollars, and an allowance for travelling expenses.

The Senate is composed of two senators from each State. No matter how large or how small, how densely or how sparsely populated, each has two votes in the Senate; and a special provision of the Constitution protects any State from being deprived, without its own consent, of its equal suffrage in the Senate. Some States, therefore, have two senators and but one representative, as, for example, Oregon, Delaware, and Nevada. The senators are the direct representatives of the States, for they are elected by the various State Legislatures, and not directly by the people. The term of a senator's service is six years; and the Senate is so arranged that one-third of its members retire by rotation every second year. There is nothing to prevent either a senator or a representative from being re-elected over and over again if the electors choose. While the House of Representatives has the right of choosing its own Speaker or chairman, the Vice-President of the Republic presides, in virtue of his office, over the Senate; but he has only a casting-vote in cases of equality, and no 'deliberative vote,' as it is called. If the Vice-President is unable to preside, or if, as has happened several times, he has to step into the President's place, the Senate may elect his substitute. In addition to its law-making powers, the Senate shares some of the functions of the President, as in appointing government officials, making treaties, and declaring war. House of Representatives has the sole right of impeaching, but

The

the Senate, solemnly constituted under oath or affirmation, has the sole right of trying all impeachments. No conviction can be obtained without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Only once has a President been impeached and tried, viz. in the case of President Johnson, who was acquitted.

The executive power is vested in a President, elected for a term of four years. He, together with a Vice-President, who holds office for a similar period, is elected by an electoral college, made up of as many electors from each State as it is entitled to representatives and senators. Thus there are as many votes in this electoral college as there are in both Houses of Congress taken together. But the electors are perfectly distinct from the members of Congress. They are different men, elected by the people, and no member of Congress can be a presidential elector; nor can any one holding an office of profit or trust under the United States. The electors vote in their respective States by ballot, separate ballots being taken for President and Vice-President; and then send the results, signed and sealed, to the President of the Senate. This official opens all the sealed lists in presence of both Houses of Congress, and the votes are counted. Any candidate who has received an absolute majority of votes, i.e. more than half the total number of electoral votes, is declared President; but if no one has polled an absolute majority, the House of Representatives immediately chooses by ballot one of the three who have most votes. But in this case the vote is taken by States, all the representatives from each State having only one vote among them. A similar plan is adopted in the case of the Vice-President, except that the Senate has the privilege of electing if one candidate has secured an absolute majority. Before this method was adopted, the electors voted by

ballot for two persons; the one who had the highest number of votes-if an absolute majority-being President, and the second being Vice President. But after the long and dangerous struggle in the electoral college betwixt Jefferson and Burr in 1800, which is described in our sketch of Jefferson's life, the plan of voting separately for the two offices was introduced in 1804.

If

The former year, 1800, saw the introduction of the caucus into American politics, an institution or custom that bulks so largely in all elections in the United States, that a few words must be devoted to describing it. It is a party organization, according to which, before any important election, the members or leaders of the various political parties meet and decide upon the candidate they will bring forward, and the measures and plans they will resort to. The object of the caucus is, of course, to prevent the strength of a party being divided among several candidates, and so weakened. there were a large class of cultured men, with leisure and wealth enough to allow them to devote themselves to political management, the caucus might not be a disadvantageous institution; but as, in fact, the strings of party are largely drawn by men who have neither character nor ability enough. to make their mark in any other profession, it is in most cases an evil. But its worst effects are not by any means beheld in the Presidential elections; they are far more blatant in the State elections, with which we are not at present concerned. But, before all Presidential elections, the great parties in the nation hold conventions, attended by delegates from the parties in the various States; and at these conventions the party candidates are chosen. A similar party manœuvre obtains in the election of the Presidential electors; so that

each elector is merely the tool of his party, chosen to vote in a particular way; he is not supposed to be free to use his individual judgment, as was the original intention in the formation of the college. Consequently, when it is known who have been chosen as electors, it is known which candidate

will be President; it is a party matter. It is to such party meetings that reference is made in the 'Lives of the Presidents' when the Republican Convention,'' Democratic Convention,' etc., are mentioned.

Before entering on his office, the President must take the oath or affirmation in these terms :-' I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.' His powers are very extensive; and the second article of the Constitution is mainly taken up in describing them. He is commander-in-chief of all the military, naval, and militia forces of the nation; and he has power to grant reprieves and pardons for any offence against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. His power of making treaties is limited by the condition that three-fourths of the senators consent; and his power of nominating ambassadors, consuls, judges, and other officials is also subject to the advice and consent of the Senate. Congress, however, may by law vest the appointment of certain inferior officers in the President alone. His power of veto has already been described. The Presidency may become vacant through death, which has happened four times; through resignation, which has never taken place; through the President's inability to discharge the duties of the office; or by his 'impeachment for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and