"Salt should be added to every mash, about an ounce being sufficient. Pepper may be added occasionally. Fresh lean meat may be substituted for beef scrap in any of the formulas, three quarts of the fresh being equal to one of the dried. Cottage cheese may be substituted in the same proportion, except that it is advisable not to replace all of the meat, one-half quart beef scrap and one and a half quarts cottage cheese being a much better proportion. The equivalent in pounds is given for convenience in ordering. The quarts represent the amount for 100 hens and may be multiplied or divided ad libitum."

REVIEW.

1. Give points to consider in the location of the feed house.

2. Give two important points in the design of the feed house.

3. Give the special equipment necessary to equip the feed room properly. 4. Define ration. What does it include?

5. Tell of the necessity of having sufficient nutrients in a ration.

6. Why is a certain proportion with respect to nutrients necessary?

7. What is the meaning of the term nutritive ratio? Give example.

8. What is potential energy as related to feeds? How can it be quickly determined?

9. Define balanced ration.

10. Discuss the need of succulence in a ration.

11. What is the effect of varying degrees of palatability?

12. Discuss bulkiness in poultry rations.

13. What is meant by an economical ration?

14. Explain how to find the cost price of a pound of protein in any purchased feed. Give examples.

15. How does ease of mixing and storing affect the economy of feeding?

16. Of what use is personal attention in feeding?

17. Enumerate the functions of grit, shell, charcoal, and salt.

18. Mention four systems of poultry feeding.

19. Discuss possibilities and usage of each of the four systems.

20. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each.

21. Outline the best combination of these systems.

22. Outline a complete system of feeding laying hens.

23. Give the rations and amounts for one of the States mentioned in this chapter.

References.-Four Methods of Feeding Early Hatched Pullets, by James E. Rice, Cornell Bulletin 249. Feeding for Eggs, by James Dryden, Oregon Reading Course, Lesson 3. Feeding for Egg Production, by J. S. Jeffrey, North Carolina Bulletin 211. Feeding for Winter Eggs, Pennsylvania Extension Circular 11. Feeding Laying Hens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course, Bulletin 17. Rations for Poultry, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Forcing the Moult, by Stewart and Atwood, West Methods of Feeding Poultry, in the United States Farmers' Bulletin 244. The Forced Moulting of Fowls, in United States Farmers' Bulletin 412.

Course, Bulletin 18.

Virginia Bulletin 83.

CHAPTER XIII.

PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING.

Poultry Breeding.-By poultry breeding is meant the science which treats of the reproduction and improvement of the domestic fowl. It may be said to be both a science and an art. It is truly a science in so far as it deduces and systematically applies facts and principles as they are demonstrated. It is an art in so much as the knowledge and experience thus acquired and the principles deduced may be utilized for the continued improvement of the animals.

A few and rather hazy suggestions pertaining to the improvement of fowls have been handed down from remote ages, but most of the earlier work on animal breeding was carried on with larger and more easily recorded domestic animals. In recent years many of the principles which govern successful breeding have become better understood, and the knowledge obtained has been more thoroughly disseminated than ever before, largely owing to the fact that experiment stations are making a special study of this science, and in many instances are using poultry as the study medium. As a rule, it may be stated that the laws of breeding which apply to all animals are equally applicable to poultry.

Breeding a Complex Problem.-Breeding is not an art which can be learned entirely from books or from the study of results obtained by a few crossings or matings; it is acquired by experience and by the actual study of the progeny resulting from such matings, generation after generation, and in large numbers.

To be successful, one must be familiar with the subject from both points of view, theoretical and practical. It is impossible to apply principles to a profitable use until they are thoroughly understood. These scientific principles have, in great measure, been derived directly from the methods of the more successful breeders, and hence are fundamental.

Need of Improvement. The improvement of the flocks of poultry which are found in greater or less numbers on practically all American farms has not received the attention which it merits, and which the results from such improvement would warrant. The breeding of poultry in a practical way has been left almost entirely

to the fancier, who keeps a smaller number of birds and aims to secure color pattern rather than utility qualities. This tendency is changing in recent years, and the value of well-bred birds for egg production and market poultry is becoming better appreciated.

The chief reason for the lack of interest in the improvement of poultry has been the fact that most farmers regard the raising of poultry as a side issue, and hence give it little consideration. Another cause is the erroneous view which many farmers take in regarding the value of the products, and the possibilities offered through study and improvement, as matters entirely too small to deserve attention.

Many of our most successful keepers still believe that improvement can best be brought about through feeding, and that selection, when practised, is not rigid enough or along the lines which would insure direct improvement.

The birds of any poultry flock, wherever kept for profit, should be considered and treated as machines,-living machines, which, when given raw material in the form of feed, will transform it into finished agricultural products, such as eggs and meat. These manufactured products represent great value in small bulk, and can be shipped great distances at little cost. In the production of market eggs this concentration of the finished product is very noticeable. One dozen eggs weighing about twenty-four ounces (11⁄2 lbs.) contain more human food material than the same weight of milk.

TABLE XVII.-Composition of Eggs Compared with Milk.

If the domestic hen is to be considered as a machine, and if the most profitable returns are to be realized from her, this machine must be carefully selected, and trained to the highest degree of efficiency. If a bird of a certain type will lay more eggs in a year, of larger and more uniform size than another bird, and meet all the requirements of the egg market, this type should be given the preference by egg producers. Again, if one type or breed of birds

produces more and better flesh in a given time, hence yielding a larger return when put on the market, this particular type should be selected and improved for market poultry.

The aim should be to choose the type of machine best adapted to the desired purpose; then, by breeding and selection, to develop this machine into the most economical transformer of raw material into the desired product that it is possible to secure.

Great Aim in Poultry Breeding. The foremost aim in poultry breeding should be the improvement of poultry in those qualities which have a definite market value; as, increased egg production, quality and quantity of flesh growth, and perfection of color pattern. All these qualities are associated more or less with perfection of proportion or symmetry of the individual, and any improvement which is continuous and which progresses toward a given ideal will materially improve the general appearance of the progeny and conduce to uniformity.

The Problems of the Poultry Breeder.-Poultry breeding operations may legitimately be divided into two classes: First, breeding for commercial results. This is an operation practiced by all commercial poultrymen. Second, experimental breeding which is an operation practiced by persons who are interested in studying the laws of breeding, and the mode of inheritance of certain characters. The commercial breeder studies such problems with an effort to increase egg production, to bring about greater stamina, size and vitality in his birds, and to perfect color pattern of plumage. The experimental breeder cares little for the commercial results attained, but makes many crosses and studies the results of same, with an idea of learning or determining definite laws. When laws governing mode of inheritance are determined, the practical poultryman can apply them for commercial results. There is a great need for more extended and careful breeding, for little is known of the complex laws governing inheritance of commercial characteristics in poultry.

The following are some of the more important problems which are at present being investigated.

1. The mode of inheritance of different commercial characters and the deduction of laws governing same.

2. The inheritance of acquired characters. Are characters which are developed by an individual due to its environment inherited? If so, why?

3. The future possibilities resulting from selection.

4. What are the proper standards to use in selecting for egg production, and for other commercial characteristics?

5. What is the true significance and commercial value of the inheritance of egg production?

6. Can variation of egg production from normal line of individuals be utilized to improve quality? If so, how can they best be attained?

7. Is the egg production of an individual a true measurement of the permanence of her progeny in this respect?

These are but a few of the present-day problems which are being investigated, and their solution will mean much in formulating methods and practice to be followed in the future by poultry breeders. Poultry farmers must appreciate the true commercial results which are attendant upon more careful breeding before popular interest will be awakened. The following paragraphs give in condensed form the present belief in regard to many of these problems.

Basis of Value in Poultry. The basis of value in poultry keeping is the power of the individual to produce a given product at a profit. The relative value of the individual depends upon its adaptation to one or more particular uses and the returns which it yields above the feed consumed. For example, the best laying hen is the one which converts the largest amount of feed into eggs of the best quality with the least possible waste of the feed consumed. While a large consumption of feed is necessary to heavy production, it is not in itself a guarantee of heavy production. The mongrel hen is often a heavy consumer of feed; but, owing to the fact that her bodily functions are not developed sufficiently to turn every atom of feed not required for maintenance into eggs, she does not yield a profit. A certain amount of feed is required to maintain the body, and observation proves that the individual which consumes the most feed in proportion to its live weight will, in the majority of cases, be the most profitable; hence the necessity of studying individuals closely, and breeding from those which possess the qualities to be desired in their young.

The records of a few noted hens show what breeding and selection will do; and also show that in order to increase the productive, or basic, value of poultry, one must study the individuality of his flock, and mate from the very best, with the idea of eliminating the poorer birds and of intensifying in the progeny the desired qualities which are pronounced in the selected parents.