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Wheat and its by-products constitute one of the best groups of feed stuffs for poultry. Oats when clipped are relished by birds and make an economical grain ration. Barley is also a good grain to feed. Buckwheat is rather fattening and usually expensive, so it is best given during the winter and at the evening feeding. Peas are generally expensive; but, being rich in protein and much relished by the birds, they are very desirable when their cost is not too great.

Need of Variety in the Ration.-Animals as well as people tire of a steady diet. A variety in the ration increases the palatability, and, by adding relish, enhances its digestibility. Variety in the ration allows the birds, if they have a preference, to select the grains which they desire, and those are usually the ones which they most need. Variety can be supplied both in the grain ration and in the dry mash. When changes are made, they should be gradual, allowing birds to become accustomed to them slowly.

Necessity of Fresh Water.-It will be remembered that more than 65 per cent of the egg and 55 per cent of the bird's body are water (Table V); hence the necessity of keeping an abundant supply before the laying hens and the growing birds at all times, in addition to what they secure from grains and succulent feeds. During heavy laying a flock of 100 hens will drink approximately 10 to 15 quarts of water each day, depending upon the size of the birds and the season of the year.

Relation of Fat to Laying Condition.-Hens with an excessive amount of body fat, due to lack of exercise and the use of fattening feeds, are not in good laying condition, and the egg yield will invariably be retarded. It has, however, been proved by experiment that some surplus fat on the body is essential. A fat hen has some surplus energy, but a lean hen requires all the feed she can digest to maintain and build up body weight and cannot use any for production. The laying hen requires considerable fat in the manufacture of the yolk, which contains about 33 per cent of fat.

Value of Exercise.-In order to keep her body warm and in proper health, a hen should be compelled to hunt or exercise for the grains which she receives. It is the usual habit of these birds, even little chicks from the time of hatching, to scratch in search of feed. Exercise increases the circulation and enhances vitality. It is true that exercise takes energy, and all energy must be produced from feed; yet the increased amount of feed is amply paid

for in healthy birds and an increased egg yield. To promote exercise it is well to keep the floor of the laying pen or scratching shed covered to a depth of four or more inches with good litter, and during the winter throw therein at least half of all the feed consumed.

Digestibility of Ground Grains.-Experiments show that a greater efficiency is obtained from feed consumed if a part of the grains are fed in ground form or as a dry mash. Experiments covering a period of two years show that birds receiving whole grains give a product valued at only 48 per cent above the cost of feed, while those receiving part of the ration in the form of ground grains showed an excess of 68 per cent. The actual difference in the total value of product was found to be about one-third greater with the hens having ground grains in the ration. More energy is required in the digestion of whole grains than ground grains. The exact determination of whether or not it will pay to feed ground grains will depend on the nature of the ration. If too much time and energy are required for fowls to grind the feed, egg production will be retarded; but, on the other hand, if all grains are fed ground, exercise will be restricted and the health of the birds impaired by reason of the tendency toward too great a concentration. This undue stimulation to an unnatural egg yield. is likely to result in lowering the bird's vitality.

Mineral Matter for Laying Hens.-The ash content of different feeds varies considerably, and the bird's requirements also vary during the different periods of its life. The problem is to adjust properly these varying factors to each other. During the growing stage and during egg production, more ash is required than is supplied by the ash content in vegetable feeding stuffs. Wheat bran is very rich in digestible ash, and is easily adapted to the feeding of baby chicks, but it does not supply enough to meet the requirements of laying hens. The lack of ash in the ration of laying birds tends to induce egg eating, because soft-shelled eggs are then likely to be produced. This condition can be prevented by keeping crushed oyster shell, ground bone, and similar material constantly before the hens. The shell constitutes 8 per cent of the whole egg, and to lay 160 eggs in a year the hen will require 1.6 pounds of mineral matter for the shells alone.

Use of Sharp Grit.-Birds have no teeth with which to grind. feed, this mastication being performed in the gizzard by muscular action. In order that this work may be properly done, sharp grit

must be present to aid in crushing and wearing the feed into fine particles. The harder and sharper the grit the better, and it should be kept always before the birds. Digestion does not take place until the feed is ground in the gizzard, and when new, sharp grit is not present the feed must remain unground in the gizzard until it becomes soft and falls to pieces; this process is slow and results in imperfect digestion.

Stimulating Feeds.-The use of condimental or stimulating feeds, such as the so-called "stock feeds," "poultry panaceas," and "egg feeds," should not be permitted except when birds seem to be lacking in appetite and it is desired to increase the palatability of their ration; and such use should be stopped as soon as the birds recover. It is a very bad practice to feed forcing and condition powders to strong, healthy birds. The habitual use of such stimulants in the ration causes the individual to become immune to the good effect which they may at first seem to have on the system. Their action on a healthy bird is very similar to that of alcohol on the human system; for a short time there is an excessive stimulation, but the after effects are depressing because of the tendency to break down or unnecessarily wear out the tissue. The use of these stimulating substances should be discouraged. Their actual value as nourishment is usually only a small fraction of their cost, and their value for promoting palatability is not equal to that of common salt, which may be safely added occasionally for this purpose in the proportion of about one ounce of salt to twenty-five pounds of dry feed.

REVIEW.

1. Compare poultry with other farm animals.

2. Compare a hen with a cow as a transformer of raw materials.

3. What is the temperature of a fowl's body, and how does it affect the feed requirements?

4. Give the composition of a fowl's body.

5. Discuss the following components in detail: (a) Water, (b) ash, (c) protein, (d) fat.

6. Define nutrition; nutrient.

7. Name three important nutrients and give their general composition.

8. Give the uses of the following nutrients in the body: (a) Protein, (b) carbohydrates, and (c) fat.

9. Discuss digestibility of feeding stuffs.

10. Name and discuss the three objects of feeding.

11. Compare maintenance requirements of the capon and the hen. 12. Discuss requirements for growth.

13. Discuss feed requirements for fattening.

14. Compare production requirements of large and small hens.

15. What are the possible uses of feeding standards?

16. Discuss the relation of feed to product.

17. Enumerate ten factors which must be considered in studying the principles of poultry feeding.

18. How and when may stimulating feed be used?

References. Feeding of Laying Hens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course Bulletin 17. Digestive Experiments with Poultry, by J. M. Bartlett, Maine Bulletin 184. Principles and Practices of Poultry Feeding, by H. R. Lewis, Bulletin New Jersey Board of Agriculture. Digestion Experiments with Poultry, by E. W. Brown, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 156. Feeding of Laying Hens, by A. G. Phillips, Kansas Bulletin 164. The Economy of using Animal Feed in Poultry Feeding, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 149. The Adaptability of Concentrated By-products for Poultry Feeding, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 27. Experiments with Whole versus Ground Grains, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 106. Poultry Feeding Experiments, by Horace Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 88. Mineral Elements in Animal Nutrition, by E. B. Forbes, Ohio Bulletin 201.

CHAPTER XI.

FEEDING STUFFS.

THERE are a large number of feeding stuffs available from which the poultryman can make his selection. Almost any material used in the feeding of any type of live stock can be given to poultry with safety. It is essential at the outset that the poultryman and the student appreciate the value of the different feed materials and their variability. When determining the advantages and disadvantages of different feedstuffs, four things should be considered: First, the digestibility, as determined by the readiness with which the birds utilize the nutrients; second, the total composition, as determined by chemical analysis; third, their palatability, which is measured by the ability with which the birds relish the feed; and, lastly, the wholesomeness of the materials. The object of this chapter is to group all feeds in a systematic classification: First, according to whether they are mineral, vegetable, or animal, and then according to their usefulness.

Sources of Nutrients.-All materials fed to poultry may be divided into two classes,-organic and inorganic. The inorganic or mineral feeds are water, salt, lime, and phosphate. These natural substances are found only in limited quantities in vegetable feeds, such as grains.

Water. As has been stated, water is essential in the ration to maintain right conditions in the bird's body and to supply the amount required for the manufacture of eggs, as one dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water. Water is supplied to the birds in the following ways: (1) Fresh water to drink, and (2) succulent feeds to eat, such as green grass, sprouted oats, beets, cabbage, and other vegetables.

Salt. Salt is supplied to increase palatability and to aid digestion by diffusion. It should be supplied when necessary in the ration to the extent of not over four ounces to every one hundred pounds of dry feed.

Lime. The shell of the fresh egg is composed almost entirely of lime. Compounds of lime are used in building bone and are found to a limited extent in other body tissues. Grains are rather deficient in lime, and it is necessary to supply other lime if birds are kept in close confinement. The practical sources

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