90 MACEDONIA AND GREECE SUBJECT TO ROME. League, B.C. 150–146. The Achæans, under Critolaus, are routed by Metellus at the Battle of Scarphea. Fourth Macedonian War, between the Romans and Andriscus, generally called Pseudo-Philip, who is defeated by Metellus, B.c. 149, 148. MACEDONIA IS MADE A ROMAN PROVINCE, B.c. 147. The War between the Achæans and Rome is ended by the Battle of Leucopetra, and the DESTRUCTION AND SACK OF CORINTH by Mummius, B.c. 146. 'The new commander finished the war in a single battle, under the walls of Corinth. Diæus, the Achæan general, filed to Megalopolis, and there destroyed himself by poison; the Corinthians, for the most part, abandoned their city, and Mummius entered it with little or no resistance. But every horror that follows the most hardly-won capture of a town by storm, was practised with deliberate cruelty. Most of the citizens were slain; the women and children were sold for slaves; the temples and private buildings were alike ransacked; and Corinth, finally, was burnt to the ground. The Achæan league was then dissolved, and Greece was henceforward treated as a province, was subjected to tribute, and governed by a Roman pro-consul, or prætor.'—N. L. ROMAN GREECE BECOMES A PROVINCE UNDER THE TITLE OF ACHEA, B.C. 146. 'The victory of Metellus at Scarphea, and that of Mummius at Leucopetra, together with the capture and destruction of Corinth, reduced Achaia, with all that had once belonged to the league, to the condition of a Roman province. Ten commissaries were despatched to regulate its internal affairs, the governments of the several cities were organized on a democratic basis, and a prætor appointed over the whole, whose jurisdiction was to extend to the frontiers of Macedonia. The several confederacies were dissolved at first, but continued subsequently to exist in subjection to the paramount authority of Rome. The cities of Athens, Delphi, Theşpiæ, and Tanagra alone remained free, to which may be added, after the reign of Augustus, Nicopolis and the district of Laconia. Amphissa and the Locri Ozolæ enjoyed immunity; at Corinth, Platææ, Dyme, and Megara, Roman colonies were subsequently planted. At the division of the provinces under Augustus, Achaia fell to the share of the senate, but in the early part of the reign of Tiberius, it became an imperial province, and continued so until Claudius again substituted a pro-consul for the Legatus Augusti. Nero's fantastic idea of once more proclaiming the freedom of Greece at the Isthmiaa games produced such melancholy consequences, that Vespasian recalled the ill-timed gift. Hadrian conferred more substantial benefits on the home of the arts and sciences, but the sunshine of his favour gleamed only on ruins; no Panhellenic festival could revive that na MELANCHOLY CONDITION OF GREECE. 91 tional spirit which now existed only in the mouths of learned men and orators. The civil contests of the Greeks among themselves, and still more, the wars which the Romans had waged on their soil, had made the land a wilderness: for whole days' journeys the country lay depopulated, or was a mere haunt of robber-bands. Three thousand fighting men were the utmost all Greece could furnish. No wonder, then, that Athens was indebted solely to the natural advantages of its position for the repulse the Goths experienced there on their irruption into Greece, A.D. 265; one hundred and thirty years later the treachery and cowardice of its Byzantine masters laid it entirely open to the desolating fury of Alaric, and left the proconsul of the East nothing to rule over but the ruins of departed grandeur.-H. P. A. [The outline of the subsequent history of Greece is as follows: The Goths overran and devastated Greece, A.D. 267. Greece became part of the Eastern Empire, A.D. 395. Alaric plundered the country, and burnt Athens, a.D. 398, but was repulsed by Stilicho. Greece is occupied by the Crusaders and Venetians, about A.D. 1202; but fell finally into the power of the Turks after the taking of Constantinople, A.D. 1453. The Venetians reconquered the Morea and Ægina about A.D. 1650, but they again became subject to the Porte, to which power they were guaranteed by the treaty of Passarowitz, A.D. 1728. Greek Revolutionary War, A.D. 1821: Battle of Navarino, A.D. 1827. Independence of Greece acknowledged by the Turks, September 29th, 1829.] APPENDIX. I. Sources of Information on Greek History. 'THEIR historical writers, strictly so called, were preceded by the Cyclic Poets, who used to repeat in a continuous form the various legendary ballads (Kúkλous), and the Logographi, who first related the legends in prose (λóyous). Such were Hecatæus, Charon, Hellanicus, and others, of whose works only detached fragments have reached us. THE HISTORIANS. 'I. Herodotus (pater historia), born at Halicarnassus, B.C. 484. He wrote, after his great journey (through Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia, Egypt, and Libya), a history of the Persian wars to the retreat of the Persians from Europe-with episodes concerning the early history of that people, and the nations who came into contact with them-in nine books, which he revised and completed at Thurii. He is said to have read his work in public at the Olympic games.-II. Thucydides, born at Athens, B.C. 474, a commander in the Peloponnesian war-superseded in his command. In his place of banishment on the Thracian Chersonesus, he collected materials for his history (vyypapń, in eight books) of the Peloponnesian war, reaching to the year 411.-III. Xenophon, born at Athens in 443 (?), a disciple of Socrates, banished from Athens for Laconism; he wrote, 1. 'EAλnka, a continuation of the history of Thucydides to the battle of Mantinea; 2. 'Aváßaris (seven books); 8. Κύρου παιδεία (eight books); 4. λόγος εἰς ̓Αγησίλαον.—IV. Polybius of Megalopolis (205-131), author of a practical universal history, from the commencement of the second Punic war to the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans.-V. Diodorus Siculus, in the reign of Augustus, wrote a ßißioľýên iσtopiký (in forty books).—VI. Plutarch, born A.D. 50, at Charonæa; he wrote forty-four Bioi mapaλλŋλøí, and five separate biographies.* GEOGRAPHERS. 'I. Strabo (in the first century of the Christian era), in book 8-10 of his yewypapıκá.-II. Pausanias (born at Rome in the second century), in his description of Greece ('EXλáɔ̃os #epiýynois, in ten books). *To these add Arrian, about A.D. 140; wrote the Anabasis of Alexander the Great, in seven books. III. Claudius Ptolemæus (an Egyptian who flourished in the second century) wrote γεωγραφική Υφήγησις (in eight books). The chronicle of the Parian Marbles is a tablet discovered in the island of Paros, and now preserved at Oxford, containing a chronological list of the principal events in the history of Greece; and particularly of Athens. 'Of Latin historians who have written upon Grecian history, we have Cornelius Nepos (or the lives that go under his name) and Justin. Besides the historians, we have, for the first mythical period, the library of Apollodorus; for the third, the orations of Isocrates, Æschines, and Demosthenes; and for constitutional history, the Politics of Aristotle.-P. II. The Athenian Revenue. 1. THE tribute paid by the confederates (pópo) increased by Pericles from four hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the customs (which were farmed), and from the mines at Laurium. 3. The caution-money of the non-citizens (MÉTOIKOI). 4. The taxes on the citizens (eirpópac), which fell almost entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the members of which were not only to bear the burden of fitting out the fleet (Tprepaрxiai), but were likewise to furnish means for the public festivals and spectacles (xopnyiai). The whole income of the republic at this time was estimated at 2000 talents. But the disbursements made to the numerous assistants at the courts of justice, (the principal means of existence with the poorer citizens, and which more than anything else contributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and the oppression of the confederates, whose causes were all brought to Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest part of the revenue.'-H. H. R. [See also particularly, Aristophanes, Vespa, 655—663.] III. 'THE first great turning point in the rise of the Athenian people is the day of Marathon. Nothing ever yet said of that day has exaggerated its immense importance to Greece and to the world. Thermopyla, Salamis, and Platea, were all contained in it as necessary consequences, with the rise of Grecian culture and civilization, and the conquests of Alexander, and all else which distinguishes the European from the Asiatic intellect. But perhaps we hardly reflect sufficiently on its intimate connexion with the history of the Athenian people in particular. It was the peculiar spirit of free citizenship, now just sufficiently developed at Athens to meet this great emergency, which alone gained the victory. It was this victory which at once gave Athens a place amongst the states of Greece by the side of the time-honoured kingdoms of Argos and Sparta-a place which she had never had before, and which she never afterwards lost. Let us, then, present the event itself before our mind as vividly as these its latest elucidations permit. It is indeed worthy to stand at the threshold of Grecian and Athenian history, for this, if for no other reason, that it illustrates so forcibly the narrow limits both of time and space into which, as is often remarked, sometimes in ridicule, sometimes in praise, the great movements of that history are compressed. The little plain, six miles long and two miles broad, has been truly described by Byron as being in its external features, next to Waterloo, the most expressive of battle-fields; and those features are given in two lines of the same poet, never so great as in his delineations of Greece: The mountains look on Marathon The mountains,' which do indeed embrace it like a sacred enclosure, are the rugged arms of Pentelicus, which divide it from the great plain of Athens so effectually that the pass between them necessarily was to Attica what Thermopyla was at a later time to Greece itself—the key of the whole country. The shore of that bright sea, which lies like a silver strip between the mainland and the bold hills of the opposite island of Eubœa, bounds the plain on the east, and is the only level tract in all that rock-bound coast where an invading eastern army could effect a landing. Thither, therefore, of necessity, the fleet of Persia had turned its course, and there lay encamped all along the tideless sand the six-and-forty nations which, in their various costumes, had come at the great king's command from the shores of Indus and the roots of Caucasus; with the cavalry of Nisa, the wonder of the world, who were to deploy in that level plain with that security of success which their position naturally suggested. And opposite this great host, on the green slope of their native hill, and within the shade of the trees that surrounded the precincts of the guardian hero of the spot, was ensconced the scanty band of the 10,000 Athenian citizens, who were there to die, if need be, for their city and their race, with the 1000 faithful and devoted friends from the little town of Platea. What were the feelings of these two armies on the eve of battle? From the vast armament on the beach no word has come down to us, nor can we, perhaps, represent to ourselves a state of mind so unlike our own, unless it be by the perusal of the speeches in which the envoys of the host of Sennacherib insulted Hezekiah:- Behold, thou hast heard what the kings of Assyria have done to all lands by destroying them utterly: and shalt thou be delivered?' One man, indeed, there was in the Persian camp, who might have been expected, like Demaratus, in the expedition of Xerxes, to have checked this confident exultation. That man was the aged Hippias, last of the sons of Pisistratus. But Greek as he was, he remembered Athens only in the time of her servitude-he knew not what a spirit had been awakened within her walls since he and his family had been cast forth; and now, when in declining years, though still retaining the energies of youth amidst the decrepitude of age, he led the Persian fleet to the same spot where, nearly fifty years before, he had landed with his father to recover their lost power, he probably thought he should find the way as open, and the conquest as easy, as |