The land, order to render a fe for the gros da vo di cop, ngaraven sarah godastiy ham mad maniow, "my hong th wenty priced one, and broken down by When grew land is to be broken up for thua croy, a vond be done in the matt, meat why exponed to the infuence of the muwazaære vodil the early part of the following yous, wing it would be well pulverised and broken down by wavy narrowing; then, in the unine of a work or two, plonged agat, in which state it may remain uli the period of pattung in the seed, when another light harrowing should be given, and the ploughing performed afterwards by a very iigut fünow, Bit in cases where the crop is sown after grain, or other crops that have the property of keeping the land clean from weeds, the first ploughing need not be given till January, when it may remain in that mituation until it becomes pretty dry in the early spring, being then well reduced by good harTowing and rolling, and, after continuing in that Made about a fortnight, the seed may either be

productive in buck the fary substance and the quenty of wed, and the former be equally have for all the purposes of the manufacturer.

Proportion of Seed-in respen to the quan tity of seed used, it varies in diferent caces according to the cromstances of the soll the me tod of sowing, and the us to which the crop 28 to be applied; but from two bushels, to two bushels and a half, the English state acre, s the ordinary allowance. In determining the proper quantity necessary for the acre, it is requiete to pay great attention to the condition of the land. When the land is rich and fertile, and the season so favorable that it can be got thoroughly pulverised, if too much seed is sown the crop is in great danger of lodging; and when that happens, particularly before the pods are formed, the flax proves inconsiderable in quantity, and very inferior in quality. When cultivated in the drill mode, at narrow distances, a much less quantity will be sufficient than in other cases; and where the intervals are large, scarcely one-half the quantity is required. When the crops are intended for seed, in whatever

manner the sowing is performed, much less will be necessary, than where flax is the main object of the grower.

The time of sowing it must depend much upon the soil and situation; but the ordinary season of sowing flax-seed is from the middle of March to the middle or end of April; but the last week of March, and the first ten days of April, are esteemed the best times; and accordingly within these periods the greatest quantity of flax-seed is sown in this country. In the county of York, where this sort of crop is grown on land broken up from grass, the seed is commonly sown before the second week in April, where it can possibly be done; while, on such lands as have been in a previous state of tillage, the sowing is frequently deferred a week or ten days longer. Wherever it can be safely practised, early sowing has the advantage of getting the flax plants to cover the surface of the land well, before they can run much risk of injury from the rising of weeds, or the parching effects of heat. In some of the southern counties of Europe, however, the husbandmen who raise flax, sow part of their seed in September and October; so that the plants which spring from thence remain of course in the ground all the winter; and this may be a judicious practice in those places, because plants which have not covered the earth well before the summer heats come on are apt to be parched by the heat and drought which usually prevail in that season. They sow linseed again also in the spring; but the latter does not yield so large a crop; the flax, however, which it produces is more esteemed, because it is finer than that sown in autumn. M. du Hamel seems indeed to think, that the autumnal sowing yields the best seed; but however that may be, in places where the winter is apt to be severe, and where the flax, which is but a tender plant, would in course be in danger of being destroyed during that season, almost all the flax is sown about the end of March, or in the beginning of April, as already stated.

The land which is intended for flax crops should be brought to an exceeding fine tilth, in the way directed above, before the seed is put in. When pasture lands are broken up, in order to their being sown with flax, they must be well wrought during several months, before they will be fit for producing such crops, in the manner just described. To defray the expense of this culture, some other crops may be got off the land in the mean time, especially of such plants as do not occupy it long, and particularly of those which are remarkably benefited by frequent stirring of the earth whilst they grow; such as beans, peas, turnips, &c., because these repeated stirrings render the mould fine and loose, and help to kill the weeds, which would otherwise do great damage to the flax. It is asserted, that the Livonians, when they clear woodlands, burn the wood upon them, then plough them, and in this state prefer them to any other kind of soil for flax crops. If the land which is intended for flax be stiff, great care should be taken not to work it when it is wet, for fear of kneading it; but it is often an excellent plan to work it deeply before winter, when dry, laying VOL. IX.

it up in very high ridges, in order that the winter frosts may the more effectually moulder and loosen its parts. In the month of February, where the land is not too wet, some very rotten dung should be laid on, and immediately covered over with the mould. The seed should afterwards, at the proper season, be sown, and harrowed in with a light or bush harrow, so as not to bury it too deep. As this, when young, is a very tender plant, and is more easily injured and checked in its progress by weeds than any other that is usually cultivated in the field, it is indispensably necessary that the danger of injury in this way should be well guarded against, in order to save future trouble and expense.

Where the principal object of the grower is flax, the most general method of putting in the crops is that of sowing them broadcast over the surface of the land. In performing the business, much care is necessary that the seed be dispersed as evenly as possible over the ground, to prevent the plants rising in an unequal or tufty manner. It should be afterwards covered in by regular harrowing, once or twice in a place, with a light common or bush-harrow, as just noticed, not covering it in too deep. But, where the seed constitutes the chief intention of the cultivator, it is contended by some that the drill mode is preferable, as requiring much less seed in sowing, and affording a much better and more abundant produce. Besides, the smoothness and weight of the seed render it extremely proper for being drilled; and the crops can be kept clean with greater facility.

In this method, the distances of the rows or drills should vary according to the circumstances of the soil, and the manner in which the crops are to be kept clean. Where the hand-hoe is to be chiefly depended upon, narrow distances may be proper, as ten or twelve inches; but, where the work is to be principally executed by the horse-hoe or cultivator, larger intervals may be more suitable, as those of eighteen or twenty inches. Slight harrowing and rolling are sometimes afterwards necessary, especially the latter, in dry seasons. It has been observed that thick sown flax runs up in height, and produces fine soft flax; but that when sown thin it does not rise to such a height, but spreads out more, sending off a greater number of side branches, which produce a great abundance of seed which is much better filled, more plump and heavy than that which is produced from thick-sown flax crops. Flax crops cultivated in this way are not so liable to be beaten down in bad weather, the stems being stronger and better fortified by the more free admission of sun and air among them; and they are not so much exposed to danger in weeding or cleaning the rows.

Where flax crops are sown in the broadcast method, they are seldom much attended to afterwards: it is, however, highly useful and necessary that they should have one good hand-hoeing, or weeding, as soon as ever the crop is sufficiently up; care being taken not to injure the plants by too much treading amongst them. In the drill manner of sowing, the after-culture of the crops must be regulated by the distance of the rows; but they may in general be cleaned

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spring; and, after sheeling, the seed should be well cleaned from all bad seeds, &c.

With regard to watering flax, a running stream wastes the lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away. Both rivers and lochs water the flax quicker than canals. But all flax ought to be watered in canals, say our northern neighbours, which should be digged in clay ground if possible, as that soil retains the water best; but if a firm retentive soil cannot be got, the bottom or sides of the canal, or both the bottom and sides, may be lined with clay; or instead of lining the sides with clay, which might fall down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous water from entering, and the water within from running off. A canal of forty feet long, six broad, and four deep, will generally water the growth of an acre of flax. It ought to be filled with fresh soft water from a river or brook, if possible, two or three weeks before the flax is put in, and exposed all that time to the heat of the sun. The greater way the river or brook has run, the softer, and therefore the better, will the water be. Springs, or short runs from hills, are too cold, unless the water is allowed to stand long in the canal. Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax. A little of the powder of galls, thrown into a glass of water, will immediately discover if it comes from minerals of that kind, by turning it into a dark color, more or less tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it contains. The canal ought not to be under shade; which, besides keeping the sun from softening the water, might make part of the canal cooler than other parts, and so water the flax unequally. The flax-raiser will observe, when the water is brought to a proper heat, that small plants will be rising quickly in it, numbers of small insects and reptiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air rising on the surface. If no such signs appear, the water must not be warm enough, or is otherwise unfit for flax. Moss holes, when neither too deep, nor too shallow, frequently answer well for watering flax, when the water is proper, as before described. The proper season for watering flax is from the end of July to the end of August. The advantage of watering flax as soon as possible after pulling has been already mentioned. The flax being sorted after rippling, as before mentioned, should next be put in beets, never larger than a man can grasp with both his hands, and tied very slack with a band of a few stalks. Dried rushes answer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for use again. The beets should be put into the canal slope-ways, or half standing upon end, the root end uppermost. Upon the crop ends, when uppermost, there frequently breed a deal of vermin, destructive of the flax, which is effectually prevented by putting the crop end downwards. The whole flax in the canal ought carefully to be covered from the sun with divots; the grassy side of which should be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it is not thus covered, the sun will discolor the flax, though quite covered with water. If the divots are not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under

water, a few stones may be laid above them But the flax should not be pressed to the bottom. When the flax is sufficiently watered, it feels soft to the gripe, and the harle parts easily with the boon or show, which last is then become brittle, and looks whitish. When these signs are found, the flax should be taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently rinsed in the water, to cleanse it of the nastiness which has gathered about it in the canal; and, as the lint is then very tender, and the beet slackly tied, it must be carefully and gently handled. Great care ought to be taken that no part be overdone; and as the coarsest waters soonest, if different kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when the rest is not sufficiently watered. When lint taken out of the canal is not found sufficiently watered, it may be laid in a heap for twelve, eighteen, or twenty-four hours, which will have an effect like more watering; but this operation is nice, and may prove dangerous in unskilful hands. After the flax is taken out of the canal, fresh lint should not be put a second time into it, until the former water be run off, and the canal cleaned and supplied with fresh water. Short heath is the best field for grassing flax; as, when wet, it fastens to the heath, and is thereby prevented from being blown away by the wind. The heath also keeps it a little above the earth, and so exposes it the more equally to the weather. When such heath is not to be got, links or clean old lea ground is the next best. Long grass grounds should be avoided, as the grass growing through the lint frequently spots, tenders, or rots it; and grounds exposed to violent winds should also be avoided. The flax, when taken out of the water, must be spread very thin upon the ground; and, being then very tender, it must be gently handled. The thinner it is spread the better, as it is then the more equally exposed to the weather. But it ought never to be spread during a heavy shower, as that would wash and waste the harle too much, which is then excessively tender, but soon after becomes firm enough to bear the rain, which, with the open air and sunshine, cleans, softens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted, and makes it blister from the boon. In short, after the flax has got a little firmness by being a few hours spread in dry weather, the more rain and sunshine it gets the better. If there be little danger of high winds carrying off the flax, it will be much the better for being turned about once a-week. If it is not to be turned, it ought to be very thinly spread. The spreading of flax and hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it greatly. The skilful flaxraiser spreads his first row of flax at the end of the field opposite to the point whence the most violent wind commonly comes, placing the root ends foremost; he makes the root ends of every other row over-lap the crop ends of the former row three or four inches, and binds down the last row with a rope; by which means the wind does not easily get below the lint to blow it away: and, as the crop ends are seldom so fully watered as the root ends, the aforesaid over-lapping has an effect like giving the crop ends more watering. Experience only can fully teach a person the signs of flax being sufficiently grassed:

then it is of a clearer color than formerly; the harle is blistered up, and easily parts with the boon, which is then become very brittle. The whole should be sufficiently grassed before any of it is lifted; for, if a part be lifted sooner than the rest, that which remains is in great danger from the winds. A dry day ought to be chosen for taking up the flax; and, if there is no appearance of high wind, it should be loosed from the heath or grass, and left loose for some hours, to make it thoroughly dry. As a great quantity of flax can scarcely be all equally watered and grassed, and as the different qualities will best appear at lifting the flax off the grass, therefore at that time each different kind should be gathered together, and kept by itself; that is, all of the same color, length, and quality. The smaller the beets lint is made up in, the better for drying, and the more convenient for stacking, housing, &c., and in making up these beets, as in every other operation upon flax, it is of great consequence that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root ends together, and the crop ends together.

In the Gentleman's Magazine for June, 1787, a method of watering flax is proposed whereby the labor would be shortened; the strength of the flax probably increased; the color rendered much finer; the operation of bleaching rendered safer and less tedious; a very disagreeable nuisance suppressed; the linen manufacture much improved; and the national income increased many thousand pounds a-year. The ingenious author, after pointing out the many inconveniences of the present method of soaking the flax in rivulets, ponds, and stagnant pools, such as the offensive smell and inky tinge arising from it in ponds, the pernicious effects of the noxious infusion, by destroying the fish in rivulets, the hurt done to cattle by preventing them from drinking the water, however thirsty, the danger of bad consequences even to the health of men, from the disagreeable effluvia, &c., proposes to improve as well as shorten the process, by plunging the new flax, after it is rippled, into scalding water, which, in extracting the vegetative sap, would do, in five minutes, more than cold water would do in a fortnight, or perhaps at all. This he illustrates analogically, by the familiar examples of infusing tea, and blanching rough almonds, in scalding water and not in cold water. Boiling water, he thinks, would also clear the new flax from many impurities, which, when not removed till it be spun into yarn, are then removed with difficulty, and loss of substance. Upon the new system, the act of bleaching would begin immediately after rippling; and a little done then might save much of what is generally done after spinning and weaving. To spin dirty flax, with a view of cleaning it afterwards, appears to be the same impropriety as if we were to reserve part of the dressing given to leather till after it is made into a glove. Should the plunging of the flax into the boiling water not suffice to make the boon brittle enough, then the common watering might be added; but in that case probably half the time usually given to this watering would suffice, and the flax might then be laid in clear rivulets, without any apprehension of its infecting the water and poisoning the fish, or of being discolored

itself; for the boiling water, into which it had been previously put, would have extreted all the poisonous vegetative sap, which I presume is what chiefly discolors the flax, or kills the fish. On the supposition that the use of boiling water in the preparation of flax may be advantageous, I can recollect at present but one objection against its being generally adopted. Every flaxgrower, it may be said, could not be expected to have conveniences for boiling water sufficient for the purpose; the consumption of water would be great; and some additional expense would be incurred. In answer to this, I presume any additional expense would be more than reimbursed by the better marketable price of the flax. In a large cauldron a great deal of flax might be dipt in the same water, and the consumption perhaps would not be more than a quart to each sheaf. Even a large household pot would be capable of containing one sheaf after another; and the whole objection would be obviated were the practice to prevail with us, as in Flanders and Holland, that the flax-grower and the flax-dresser should be two distinct professions. He concludes with recommending to those who are inclined to make experiments, not to be discouraged by the failure of one or two trials. Perhaps the flax, instead of being just plunged into the scalding water, ought to be kept in it five minutes, perhaps a quarter of an hour, perhaps a whole hour. Such boiling, when in this state, might in return save several hours boiling in the article of bleaching. It is not probable that the boiling of the flax with the boon in it would prejudice the harle; for, in the course of its future existence, it is made to be exposed twenty or forty times to this boiling trial; and, if not detrimental in the one case, it is to be presumed it would not be detrimental in the other. Perhaps, after the boiling, it would be proper to pile up the flax in one heap for a whole day, or half a day, to occasion some fermentation: or immediately after the boiling it might be proper to wash it with cold water. The great object, when the flax is pulled, is to get the harle from the boon with as little loss and damage as possible; and if this is accomplished in a more complete manner than usual, considerable labor and expense will be saved in the future manufacturing of the flax. On this account much more would be gained than lost, were the two or three last inches of the roots of the stems to be clipt off, previously to the flax being either watered or boiled. When the flax is watered, care should be taken not to spread it out dry, when there is a hazard of its being exposed in its wet state to frost. This method appears extremely plausible, and certainly merits a fair

trial.

Hill and Bundy's machine for breaking flax and hemp, is the latest improvement of this kind. It seems to have been suggested by Mr. Lee as far back as 1810. It is portable, and may be worked in barns or out-houses of any kind; a great part of the work is so light that it may be done by children and infirm persons; and such is the construction and simplicity of the machine, that no previous instruction o practice is required. The woody part is re