Indeed, reference to Bartlett's concordance reveals no single mention by Shakespeare of Burgundy except in the Lear, in Henry the Fifth, in the First and Third Parts of Henry the Sixth, and in the line from Richard the Third just quoted. That is to say, outside of this tragedy, Shakespeare always conceives of the Duchy of Burgundy as that ruled by Philip the Good and his son, Charles the Bold, fifteenth century rivals of France and for a time allied with England in war against the French. Philip the Good is that Duke of Burgundy who appears in Henry the Fifth to urge the marriage of King Henry to Katherine of France, and again in Henry the Sixth to desert the English in time of war at the persuasion of Joan of Arc. Charles the Bold actually married Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV and Richard III. Certainly it does not strain probability to suggest that Shakespeare had studied the lives of both these masters of political intrigue in composing his earlier "histories," and so held in mind their characters when he created the Burgundy of the Lear.

It is a well-known historical fact that the strongest ambition of Duke Charles, an ambition shared likewise by his father, Duke Philip, was to establish a kingdom which should rival that of France. In the words of one historian, Charles aimed to "reunite Burgundy with the northern group of her possessions (Flanders, Brabant, etc.) and to obtain the emperor's recognition of the kingdom of ‘Belgian Gaul.' "20 Now, "Belgian Gaul" in the north certainly suggests "Celtic Gaul" as its southern rival. Shakespeare is not far from the traditional division.

This is not an effort to prove that all versions of the Leir story, or even most of them, identify France with Gallia Celtica. It is an argument that Caesar's tripartite Gaul is recognized in Geoffrey and in some of his successors, probably influencing Spenser, the anonymous playwright, and, perhaps, even Shakespeare to think of France in Leir's time as only the central division of that land.

20 Rene Poupardin in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, eleventh edition, IV, p. 822.

BUNYAN'S MR. BADMAN AND THE PICARESQUE

NOVEL

BY JAMES BLANTON WHAREY

There has been a strange tendency on the part of historians of English prose fiction to minimize, if not wholly to ignore, Bunyan's influence upon the development of the novel. The more one looks into the matter, however, the more convinced one becomes that his influence was considerable. Recognition of this fact, though tardily given, is characteristic of the more recent studies of the novel. Mr. Saintsbury, for example, writes:

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Disregarding prejudice and punctilio, every one must surely see that, in diminishing measure, even the Holy War is a novel, and that the Pilgrim's Progress has every one of the four requisites-plot, character, description, and dialogue-while one of these requisites-character with its accessory manners—is further developed in the History of Mr. Badman after a fashion for which we shall look vainly in any division of European literature (except drama) before it.

This last named work, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman, Professor Chandler, some six years prior to the statement just quoted, had characterised as "a Puritan romance of roguery." Indeed it was the paragraph in the Literature of Roguery from which this phrase is taken that first led me to examine the affiliations of Bunyan's allegory with the picaresque type of novel.

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For the picaresque story in its simplest and most primitive form we must turn to Spain. Lazarillo de Tormes, a small, unpretentious book of unknown authorship, first published-it is believed-in 1553, has the distinction of being the first picaresque novel. Many of the elements of the story can be traced to earlier productions, but this little

1The English Novel, The Channels of English Literature Series, London, 1913, p. 54.

2The Literature of Roguery, New York, 1907, I, p. 225.

book is the first to choose its hero from the very dregs of human society and through him to satirize the various social classes of the time.

Both the times and the country were favorable for such a production. Spain, impoverished by long-continued wars, swarmed with half-starved mendicants and idlers. For the thousands of rogues and rascals that overran the country the chief business in life was to stay the pangs of an empty belly, the readiest means being by the wits rather than by honest work. The outstanding traits of this sixteenth century rogue-story are:

(1) It is told in the first person. This point of view is consistently adhered to throughout the whole narrative.

(2) The narrator, who is the hero of the story, is of low origin; his father was a thief, his mother not adverse to an illicit union.

(3) The hero is a rogue, but a rogue from necessity rather than choice. When it is possible to live an honest life, he lives it. His rogueries, almost without exception, grow out of his efforts to ward off hunger.

(4) The story, which is an account of the hero's experiences with seven successive masters,-a Blind Man, a Priest, an impoverished Squire, a Friar, a Pardoner, a Chaplain, and a Constable,-is loosely constructed. It could be continued almost indefinitely. The end depends upon the caprice of the author, not upon the logical necessity of events.

(5) The interest of the story is two-fold: (a) in the roguish tricks of the hero, (b) in the pungent satire directed against the social conditions of the age. The picture of the starving squire and his brave attempt to keep up appearances is unforgettable.

(6) The story is thoroughly realistic; not the faintest touch of idealism occurs anywhere in it.

(7) The language and style of the book are adapted to the popular taste. "In all Spanish literature, at least in

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prose," writes a Romance scholar, "we find no other work written in such simple language and unaffected style."

The attempts at continuation, the many editions, the numerous translations and imitations of the Lazarillo—all attest the deep impression created by this little volume. The trail blazed by its unknown author was further cleared in 1599 by the publication of Mateo Aleman's Guzman de Alfarache, a far more ambitious attempt than the earlier work. Guzman, though of illegitimate birth, comes of a higher social station than Lazaro. Nor does he, as did Lazaro, adopt a roguish career from necessity. Part I recounts the beginnings of his rogue's life in Spain, his service with various masters and the cheats played them, and finally his varied experiences in Italy, first with a begging fraternity, and then as servant, respectively, to a Cardinal and to the French Ambassador.

In the Second Part, published in 1605, Guzman, after varied experiences in Florence, Siena, and Bologna, reaches Madrid. Here he sets up in trade, marries, but, staking too high hopes upon his wife's dowry, fails. He attempts to save himself through bankruptcy. Upon the death of his wife, he matriculates in the University of Alcala. He marries a second wife, his landlady's daughter, who makes a cuckold of him and in Seville deserts him for a ship master. Guzman returns to his knavish tricks, but is finally cap tured and sent to the galleys. He regains his freedom by divulging a plot of his fellow-convicts to turn over the ship to the Turks. With the promise of still a third part, fortunately never fulfilled, the story ends.

Widely different as Lazarillo de Tormes and Guzman de Alfarache are, the basic idea is the same: to present a satirical picture of the social conditions of the time through the eyes of a rogue. Aleman has presented his story in the form of an autobiography. His hero is a rogue, but a rogue from choice rather than from necessity. He has placed less stress, in the Second Part at least, upon the hero's serv

3Fonger de Haan, An Outline of the History of the Novela Picaresca in Spain, Johns Hopkins Dissertation, 1895, p. 12.

ice with various masters and more stress upon the hero's character and activities. His story is less unified than the Lazarillo, in that digressions and episodes are freely admitted.

Lazarillo and Guzman represent the earliest and most primitive examples of the picaresque story. They head the long line of romances of roguery written not only in Spain but in all the countries of Western Europe. The numerous translations into English of the Lazarillo and the Guzman are sufficient evidence of the favorable reception accorded the rogue story in this land, where the common people enjoyed a freedom and an independence unknown in other countries and where conditions were ripe for the development of the realistic novel.

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II

"Before the advent of Defoe," writes Chandler in his Literature of Roguery, "the last decade of the Sixteenth Century and the sixth of the Seventeenth were alone fruitful for the English romance of roguery. Each decade was signalized by a characteristic work, the first by "The Unfortunate Traveller' of Thomas Nashe, the second by "The English Rogue' of Richard Head and Francis Kirkman. Between these two periods the picaresque tradition was kept alive only by native anatomies of roguery, criminal biographies, and plays, and by foreign rogue novels in translation."

Robert Greene played all about the picaresque novel without ever actually writing one. His Cony-Catching pamphlets evince his keen interest in rogues and his possession of material out of which several such novels might have been constructed. His nearest approach to the type is found in The Life and Death of Ned Browne, the full title of which is: "The Black Bookes Messenger Laying Open the