Athirst and wearied with the noon-tide heat, Fate to the garden led his luckless feet; With eager eyes and open mouth he stood, Smelt the sweet breath, and touched the fragrant food; "Were you suspected, my unhappy friend," The hint was strong; young Osmyn searched his store "So fond of death," replied the boy, "'tis plain The tale proceeds, when first the Caliph found Relenting thoughts then painted Osmyn young, For one so tempted, troubled, and betrayed; And a free pardon the glad boy restored To the kind presence of a gentle Lord; That traitor-friend, whom pains nor prayers could move; THE prejudice of education, the pride of place, the ignorance which we might have overcome, or the glory of this world's dominion, will yield us no apology for error before the throne of God.-BISHOP HOPKINS. to IN our last lesson we gave you a glimpse of this brilliant species of opening, and made a few explanatory remarks on the first three moves. You saw how fatal it was to Black's game to move out the K. B. P. on the fourth move. In the present game he will adopt sounder play. Your fourth move is among the best: you attack the weakest point of his game and prepare castle. Black's fourth move is a mooted point among. Chess authorities: he may advance the K. Kt. P. upon your Kt., or he may place his K. B. on the K. Kt. second square. The former move is preferred by Carrera, Salvio, Lionardo, Sarratt, and others; while the latter is advocated by Philidor, Cozio, Ponziani, Del Rio, and others. We will select a few games illustrative of both modes of play, advising the student not to attach himself to either: he will probably get a safer game by playing the Bishop to K. Kt. second, while more brilliant and intricate situations arise from pushing forward the K. Kt. P. 4. K. Kt. P. one square. If at this point your K. Kt. is sacrificed the game is resolved into the Muzio Gambit, which will be illustrated hereafter. 9 K. Kt. P. one square. 9. Q. to K. R. sixth square checkg. Instead of this move, Black ought to have played Q to K. second square; but the check with the Q. was tempting, especially as there seems a chance of following up the apparent advantage by playing Q. to K. Kt. seventh square. Black's ninth move, however, is a very bad one, and has been shown by Greco in several variations to be fatal. If you play as your best move 10. King home, Black loses the Q. by attacking your K. R.; for example, 10. Q. to K. Kt. seventh square. You then play K. Kt. to K. B. second square, which protects the Rook, and hinders the advance of the Gambit Pawn; and you afterwards win his Q. by playing K. B. home. But if instead of falling into this trap, or allowing you to win the Q. by playing your Kt. to K. B. fourth square, Black play 10. Q. to K. R. fourth square, the loss is not so immediate, or apparent to the young player, who is apt to estimate the state of the game by numerical superiority without due regard to position; but it will be seen that Black has by his useless check lost time, and hampered his game, while yours is peculiarly susceptible of improvement. 11. K. Kt. to K. B. fourth square. 11. Q. to Q. K. fourtn square checkg. It would perhaps have been better for Black to have played Q. to K. Kt. fourth square, since he has nothing 1. K. P. two squares. 2. K. B. P. two squares. 3. K. Kt. to K. B. third square. 4. K. B. to Q. B. fourth square. 5. K. Kt. to K. fifth square 6. K. to K. B. square. WHITE. 1. K. P. two squares. 2. P. takes P. 3. K. Kt. P. two squares. 4. K. Kt. P. one square. 5. Q. to K. R. fifth sq. checking. Thus far the moves are the same as in the last game. By advancing the Gambit Pawn at this stage of the game, and allowing the first player to make the most of the attack which he has upon your K. B. P., you resolve the game into the Cochrane gambit as it is called, although the more correct term would be the Cochrane defence to the gambit. Mr. Cochrane examined this move with considerable skill in his Treatise published in 1822, and hence Chess players have attached his name to this species of the gambit. 7. K. Kt. takes K. B. P. 6. Gambit Pawn advances. 13. K. B. to Q. third square. This is perhaps his best move, but the precision and foresight with which De la Bourdonnais played would have ensured him the victory in a less favourable position. 13. P. takes K. Kt. P. chg. 14. Q. B. to K. R. sixth sq. chg. 15. Q. Kt. takes Q. P. 14. K. takes P. 15. K. to K. Kt. sq. White now allows his adversary the move, which he has so long desired, but it is now of no use to him, for whatever he does White must win; for example, 16. Q. takes K. Kt. 17. K. B. takes Q. 16. Q. takes Q. 17. Q. Kt. gives checkmate. But if at the 16th move he play Q. B. P. takes Q. Kt. the game may be prolonged a few moves but cannot be saved. Or if he play at the 16th move K. R. P. takes Kt. P. you give the mate with the Q. Kt. immediately. PROBLEM XIII. White to move first, and to checkmate in three moves. BLACK. WHITE. PROBLEM XIV. White to move, and mate on the third move. BLACK. WHITE. JOHN W, PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND, LONDON, THIS interesting relic of ancient art carries us back to a remarkable era in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. Stone pulpits, either standing alone, or in connexion with cloisters, (under the shelter of which the assembled hearers could listen to the preaching of the Friar who was addressing them) are connected with the history of the different orders of mendicant or begging friars, These men rose up to supply the deficiency occasioned by a gross neglect of duty on the part of the secular clergy. Long before the thirteenth century the monastic orders had degenerated from their primitive austerity, and were totally given up to luxury and indolence, dissipation and licentiousness, so that they were at length neither willing nor able to instruct the people in any adequate manner, while their evil VOL. XXII. example was productive of the most injurious effects. In this state of things new orders of men arose, who were destitute of fixed posessions, severe in their man-, ners, and very active in the duties of preaching and prayer. These were the four orders of Mendicant Friars commonly denominated the Franciscans, the Dominicans, the Carmelites, and the Augustines. Speaking of these Friars, Warton, in his History of English Poetry, remarks, These societies soon surpassed all the rest, not only in the purity of their lives, but in the number of their privileges, and the multitude of their members. Not to mention the success which attends all novelties, their reputation rose quickly to an amazing height. The popes, among other immunities, allowed them the liberty of travelling. 694 wherever they pleased, of conversing with people of all ranks, of instructing the youth and the people in general, and of hearing confessions without reserve or restriction; and as on these occasions, which gave them opportunities of appearing in public and conspicuous situations, they exhibited more striking marks of gravity and sanctity than were observable in the conduct and deportment of the members of other monasteries, they were regarded with the highest esteem and veneration throughout all the countries of Europe. Such were the Friars Preachers at the commencement of their career; but we find that in the end they also abused their privileges, and became notorious for the frauds and artifices by which they enriched their con vents. The Preaching Cross, or Stone Pulpit, near Hereford, is one of the very few relics of its kind, which relate to this period. It stands in a garden belonging to Coningsby Hospital, within the northern suburbs of the city; and it is stated by Mr. Britton that this Cross, and one at Iron Acton, in Gloucestershire, are the only stone pulpits that have come under his notice. A priory was originally established by the Dominicans, or Black Friars, in Portfield, beyond Bye-Street gate, about the year 1276. The undertaking was carried on beneath the auspices of William Cantalupe, brother to the Bishop of Hereford. From this site they were, nowever, compelled to remove by order of the bishop, in consequence of a dispute with the members of the cathedral. Subsequently, a Sir John Daniel, or Deinville, presented them with a piece of ground in WideMarsh field, and the bishop was induced to annex a second piece, so that they began to build a church and priory under the protection of their new patron; but he being afterwards beheaded at Hereford, in the time of Edward the Second, the work was suspended till the next reign. It was completed in the reign of Edward the Third; and that monarch with his son, the Black Prince, three archbishops, one bishop, the king's confessor, and many other distinguished personages, were present at the dedication of the church. The king's confessor dying in Hereford, was interred in the choir of the church; and this circumstance, combining with the novelty of the new religious order, soon raised the priory into high repute, so that it became a not unusual circumstance for persons of wealth and dignity to bequeath their bodies to be interred within this sacred inclosure, instead of within the neighbouring cathedral. cross at Hereford was probably attached to the cloisters of the priory; though it now forms, with a few fragments of walls, the only architectural remains of the monastic buildings of which it constituted a part. Yet when we consider its exposure during so long a period to the vicissitudes of the weather, and to the same evils which many ancient buildings have suffered from in a marked degree, we may congratulate ourselves that so interesting a relic is still in existence, and has not suffered irretrievably from time, or from wanton spoliation. The evidence relating to its origin and use is too plain and well authenticated to need any comment; but we may remark that several conjectures have been formed, and causes ascribed for the erection of the edifice which are not capable of being borne out by evidence. If we recollect rightly, one of these conjectures ascribes its origin to a supposed miracle. The fable runs, that on one occasion, when the Bishop of Hereford was leaving his dwelling, and approaching his cathedral, the bells of their own accord struck up a joyous peal as soon as he came within sight of the church. This miraculous circumstance was celebrated by the prelate, (it is said) by the erection of the stone cross. The Black Friars' Cross is hexagonal in its form, and is elevated on six steps. Originally there was an open entrance on one side, where there was an additional step. A sort of hand-rail or parapet, little more than knee-high, closed in five of the openings. In the centre is a pillar, from which spring six ribs, diverging under a stone roof, and communicating with similar ribs, which are continued down the inner faces of the six buttresses. The cross has a venerable and picturesque appearance, heightened by the foliage which grows near and around It is altogether a pleasing memorial of former ages and of a zeal which, though in some respects misguided, had at least this merit, that it protested against the grosser evils of the period, and led to a partial reforınation of manners. it. THE USES OF MINUTE THINGS. THE influence of plants, even of those of the lowest grade, is much greater than what would at first appear to an unreflecting observer; for even the jelly-like forms of vegetation seen floating on stagnant water afford nourishment to animalcules, which are themselves to serve as food to more These, insignificant as they may appear, afford by their As a natural consequence of this state of things, mutual jealousies and disputes arose between the cathe-lands, and may be seen vegetating even upon the barren rock. dral clergy and the Friars Preachers; and it may be remarked that these friars were almost universally at variance with the regular monks, and the secular clergy. In 1343 a license was granted enabling the Friars Preachers to exchange some of their lands in Hereford, for other lands in Willington; and this privilege was the occasion of disputes. The bishop's commissary having attempted to exercise authority over the friars, Richard Barrets, their prior, instituted a suit before the Archbishop of Canterbury against the bishop and his commissary. The prior died before it was decided; but his successor prosecuted the suit, and obtained a decree, dated July 6th, 1351, in which it was stated that the order of Friars Preachers, by indulgences and privileges granted from the see apostolic, were exempted from the jurisdiction of any ordinary, and especially from that of the Bishop of Hereford for the time being, or any of his ministers or commissaries, unless the said bishop or his commissary were commissioned thereunto from the see apostolic. It appears to have been a favourite practice of these friars to preach to large assemblies of people from crosses of the kind above represented, and by the zeal thus evinced they gained a large portion of that popularity with which they were generally received. The present Myriads also of the minutest as well as of the largest living beings feed upon vegetable matter; even the insignificant rock-moss serves as food for the rein-deer, the pasture-grasses for herds of ruminating cattle, and the leaves of trees for the largest quadrupeds now seen upon the surface of the earth. From the great similarity in nature of the different pasturegrasses in every part of the world, man has been able to transport cattle into various countries of the earth which he has chosen to colonize. Some fruits afford nutriment to birds and small quadrupeds; while others, employed as such by man, form, with vegetables, the chief objects of attention to the gardener, and the principles of their culture the science of horticulture; while the cereal grasses, as yielding the greater portion of the food of man, form the principal objects of agriculture.-DR. ROYLE. ALL war is to be carried on, partly by our own strength, and partly by that of allies and auxiliaries: so in our Christian warfare against the temptations of the world, the things which properly answer these two, are watchfulness and prayer; by watchfulness, we exert and employ our strength; and by prayer we engage God's.-DEAN South. EASY LESSONS ON REASONING. LESSON VII. § 1. We have seen that all sound Reasoning consists in referring that of which we would (in the conclusion) affirm or deny something, to a Class, of which that affirmation or denial may be made. Now "the referring of anything to a Class," means (as you will perceive on looking back to the examples that have been given) to affirm of it a Term denoting a Class; which Term, you will have observed, is the Middle-term of the Syllogism. We are next led therefore to inquire what terms may be affirmatively predicated of what others. It is plain that a proper-name, or any other term that stands for a single individual, cannot be affirmed of anything except that very individual. For instance "Romulus the "Thames "England"—"the founder of Rome"-" this river," &c., denoting, each, a single object, are thence called "Singular-terms:" and each of them can be affirmed of that single object only, and may, of course, be denied of any thing else. When we say "Romulus was the founder of Rome," we mean that the two terms stand for the same individual. And such is our meaning also when we affirm that "this river is the Thames." On the other hand those terms which are called "Common" (as opposed to "Singular") from their standing for any, or for every, individual of a Class, such as "man,” “river," "country"-may of course be affirmed of whatever belongs to that Class: as "the Thames is a river;" "the Rhine and the Ganges are rivers." § 2. A Common-term is thence called (in relation to the "Subjects" to which it is applicable) a "Predicable;" that is, affirmatively-predicable; from its capability of being affirmed of another Term. A Singular-term on the contrary, may be the Subject of a proposition, but not the Predicate: unless of a Negative-proposition; (as "the first-born of Isaac was not Jacob") or unless the Subject and Predicate be merely two expressions for the same individual; as in some of the examples above. You are to remember however that a Common-term must be one that can be affirmed of several other terms, in the same sense, as applied to each of them; as "vegetable," to "grass," and to an "oak." For, different as these are, they are both "vegetables" in the same sense: that is, the word "vegetable " denotes the same thing in respect of both of them: [or, "denotes something common to the two."] But there are several proper-names which are borne, each, by many individuals; such as "John ""William &c., and which are said to be (in ordinary discourse) very common names; that is, very frequent. But none of these is what we mean by a "Common-term;" because, tho' applied to several persons, it is not in the same sense, but always, as denoting in each case, one distinct individual. If I say "King Henry was the conqueror at Agincourt" and, "the conqueror of Richard the Third was King Henry," it is not, in sense, one term, that occurs in both those propositions. But if I say of each of these two individuals that he was a "King," the term "King" is applied to each of them in the same sense. §3. A Common-term, such as "King" is said to have several "Significates;" that is, things to which it may be applied: but if it be applied to every one of these in the same sense, [or denotes in each of them, the same thing] it has but one "signification." And a Commonterm thus applied, is said to be employed "univocally." If a term be used in several senses, it is, in meaning, not one term only, but several. Thus, when "Henry (or any other such name) is applied to two individuals to denote, in each case, that one distinct person, it is used not as one term, but as two; and it is said to be applied to those two, "equivocally." The like often occurs in respect of Common-terms also; that is, it often happens that one word or phrase will be not merely one but several Common-terms. Take for example the word "Case," used to signify a kind of "covering;" and again (in Grammar) an inflection of a noun; (as "him" is the accusative [or objective] case of "he") and again, a "case" such as is laid before a lawyer. This word is, in sense, three; and, in each of the three senses may be applied "univocally to several things which are, in that sense, signified by it. But when applied to a box and to a grammatical case, it is used "equivocally." § 4. That process in the mind by which we are enabled to employ Common-terms, is what is called "Generalization;" Common-terms being often called also "General-terms." When, in contemplating several objects that agree in some point, we “abstract" [or draw off] and consider separately, that point of agreement, disregarding everything wherein they differ, we can then designate them by a Common-term, applicable to them, only in respect of that which is " common to them all, and which expresses nothing of the differences between them. Thus we may contemplate in the mind several different "kings;" putting out of our thoughts the name and individual character, of each, and the times and places of their reigns, and considering only the regal Office which belongs to all and each of them. And we are thus enabled to designate any or every one of them by the "common" [or general] term, "king." And so, in the case of any other common-term. The "Abstraction" which here takes place, is so called from a Latin-word originally signifying to "draw off;" because we separate, and as it were, draw off, in each of the objects before us, that point,-apart from every other-in which they are alike. It is by doing this, that generalization is effected. But the two words have not the same meaning. For tho' we cannot "generalize" without "abstracting," we may perform Abstraction without Generalization. § 5. If, for instance, any one is thinking of "the Sun," without having any notion that there is more than one such body in the Universe, he may consider it without any reference to its place in the sky; whether rising, or setting, or in any other situation; (tho' it must be always actually to some situation) or again he may be considering its heat alone, without thinking of its light; or of its light alone; or of its apparent magnitude, without any reference either to its light or heat. Now in each of these cases there would be Abstraction; tho' there would be no Generalization, as long as he was contemplating only a single individual; that which we call the "Sun." But if he came to the belief (which is that of most Astronomers) that each of the fixed Stars is a body affording light and heat from itself, as our Sun does, he might then, by abstracting this common circumstance, apply to all and each, of these (the Sun of our System, and the Stars) one common-term denoting that circumstance; calling them all, "Suns." And this would be, to "generalize.' In the same manner, a man might, in contemplating a single mountain, (suppose, Snowdon) make its height alone, independently of everything else, the subject of his thoughts; or its total bulk; disregarding its shape, and the substances it is composed of; or again, its shape alone; and yet while thus abstracting, he might be contemplating but the single individual. But if he abstracted the circumstance common to Snowdon, Etna, Lebanon, &c., and denoted it by the common-term "Mountain," he would then be said to generalize. He would then be considering each, not, as to its actual existence as a single individual, but as to its general character, as being of such a description as would apply equally to some other single objects. |