of restoring peace and order, Athanasius first concealed himself outside the city, and then sailed for Rome in the spring of A.D. 340. There Julius, the Bishop of Rome, summoned a Provincial Council, which acquitted the persecuted Patriarch of the charges brought against him; and two years afterwards the Emperors Constans and Constantius called a General Council to meet at Sardica, where 380 bishops, of whom seventy-six were Arians, met together in A.D. 343. The Arian bishops would not sit as a minority, and they arranged themselves as a Second Council at Philippopolis. But the remaining three hundred bishops, among whom were three from Britain, carried on the inquiry, and completely exculpated Athanasius, writing letters to the bishops and laity within his jurisdiction as Patriarch, in which they exhorted all "to contend earnestly for the sound faith, and for the innocence of Athanasius." Once more the exiled Patriarch was allowed to return to Alexandria, which he did about the time that his supplanter Gregory died, A.D. 345, and the reception which he met with showed that his popularity was not at all diminished.

Soon, however, the Arian party regained their ascendancy by the accession of Constantius to the whole Empire, on the murder of his only remaining brother, Constans. The condemnation of Athanasius was obtained by court favour and court threats in the Councils of Arles [A.D. 353] and Milan [A.D. 355]; his orthodox defenders were sent into exile, and he himself was driven into the wilderness of the Thebaid, where he remained among the hermits for eight or nine years [A.D. 354-362], being superseded by the Arian bishop, George of Cappadocia.

When he had escaped from Alexandria, it was the intention of Athanasius to go and appeal personally to Constantius, but the persecution spread throughout the West, a price was set upon his head, and close search was made for him. He therefore changed his mind, and retired to the Thebaid, where he was greatly beloved by the monks who had gathered there under the rule of St. Antony, his own great friend, who had recently died. [ANTONY.]

The accession of the infidel Emperor Julian, a nephew of Constantine the Great, was almost immediately followed by the murder of George, the Cappadocian bishop, who had all this while been sitting in the seat of Athanasius. To show his contempt for Christianity by minimising the controversies which divided Arians and the Orthodox, Julian permitted all exiled bishops to return to their sees, and among them Athanasius, who resumed his throne, to the great joy of Alexandrian Christians, on February 22nd, 362. All the time of his absence he had been actively engaged, by correspondence and by messengers, with the ecclesiastical affairs of his Patriarchate, but important matters had to

be undertaken on his return, and the transaction of these brought upon him the resentment of the Pagan part of the population and of the Emperor, who, declaring that he had never intended him to resume "what is called the Episcopal throne," ordered him to leave Alexandria at once. Again he took up his home among the monks of Lower Egypt, where he remained until the death of Julian, which occurred on June 26th, 363. He then returned privately to Alexandria, but immediately after his arrival he received a letter from the new Emperor, Jovian, desiring him to resume his duties as Patriarch.

For a short time after the death of Jovian the troubles of Athanasius returned, Valens, his successor in the East, ordering, in A.D. 365, that all bishops expelled from their sees by his Arian predecessor Constantius, and recalled by Julian, should once more be banished. There was some sort of promise to the people of Alexandria that Athanasius should be excepted from this decree, but he was warned that his life was in danger, and leaving the city, he concealed himself for four months in his father's tomb outside the city walls. the end of that time an Imperial order was sent for his recall, and his retreat having been discovered he was carried back to the city by a great multitude, not again to be driven from it.

At

St. Athanasius died at the great age of seventy-seven, after an episcopate of nearly forty-seven years, on May 2nd, 373, the day on which he is commemorated in the Calendars of the Church. Notwithstanding his laborious work as the bishop of an important see and the Archbishop and Patriarch of many other bishops, he left behind him a voluminous collection of letters and treatises, which fill four folio volumes. Much of his literary work was doubtless done during the periods of his exile, especially when living in the cænobite establishments of St. Antony, in the Thebaid. While he lived he was the great breakwater by which the flood of Arianism was withstood, and after his death his works formed one of those strong literary bulwarks by which the faith delivered in the Nicene Creed has been maintained against a long series of assaults.

Athanasian Creed.-A statement of the Catholic belief respecting the several Persons of the Holy Trinity, which acquired the name of "Athanasian," as embodying the doctrine which he taught, and for which he laboured and suffered. [CREEDS.]

Atheists. Those who profess to believe that there is no God, the words atheism and atheist being taken from a Greek word which is formed from the word Theos, "God," made negative by the prefix a.

Athenagoras.-A Christian Apologist of the second century. Little is known of his life, but he appears to have been an Alexan

drian philosopher, and it is said that his first intention was to write against Christianity. But in studying the Scriptures with this hostile purpose he became convinced of their Divine origin, and thus "became a preacher of the faith which once he destroyed." He wrote two works, the Apology, and a Treatise on the Resurrection. They will be found in Clark's "Ante-Nicene Fathers."

Athinganians, or Attingians.-A sect of PAULICIANS (q.v.), which arose in Asia Minor in the latter half of the seventh century. Their distinctive principle, apart from those of the body from which they broke off, was that of using the formula "I am the Water of Life" for the administration of baptism, and "Eat and drink" for that of the Eucharist, instead of the forms in general use in the Church.

Athocians.-Heretics of the thirteenth century, who denied the immortality of the soul.

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Atonement.-A making "at one" those who were alienated. The ancient pronunciation of the word " one " is represented by the modern pronunciation of this combination, and it is also found in the words "alone" and "only;" but its actual meaning is best shown by accepting the pronunciation indicated by writers of the Reformation period, namely, at-one-ment, where one is pronounced as "won," and not as own." It only appears once in the Authorised Version of the New Testament [Rom. v. 11], and there it represents the Greek word katallage, the sense of which is "reconciliation." In the Revised Version this word appears in place of it. The English word was used in the sense of reconciliation until recent times, when it has been commonly used as if it meant "satisfaction for sin." Its true and proper sense is that of the reconciliation of fallen man to God by the work of Christ, whom writers of the Reformation period occasionally called "The Atone-Maker." This sense is well illustrated by the words of Udal in commenting on Eph. ii. 14: "And like as He made the Jews and the Gentiles at one between themselves, even so He made them both at one with God; that there should be nothing to break the atonement, but that the things in heaven and the things in earth should be joined together, as it were, into one body." So also Tyndale wrote: "Paul saith, 1 Tim. ii., One God, One Mediator (that is to say, Advocate, Intercessor, or an At-one-Maker) between God and man, the Man Christ Jesus, which gave Himself a Ransom for all men." [RECONCILIATION, WORK OF CHRIST.]

Atrium. The entrance-court of a church, the name having been previously used as that of the same division of a Roman mansion. In a large church it would be a portico or

great colonnade in front of St. Peter's, at Rome, is an illustration of the atrium.

Atterbury, FRANCIS [A.D. 1662-1732]. -A Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster during the reign of Queen Anne. He was born at Milton-Keynes, in Buckinghamshire, and educated at Westminster and Christ Church. After gaining some literary distinction at Oxford, he became a distinguished preacher in London, and established so high a reputation that he was made Lord High Almoner to William III. In the year 1713 he became bishop and dean, and was on the point of rising to the Archbishopric of Canterbury when the queen died, and George I. stopped his promotion. Atterbury's sympathies were with the exiled Stuart family, and in 1722 he was imprisoned in the Tower on the charge of being in correspondence with them. On April 9th, 1723, a Bill of Attainder was introduced into the House of Lords; and although he defended himself eloquently and efficiently, the same political weapon which had sent Laud to the block sent Atterbury into exile for the last nine years of his life. During those years he lived at Brussels and Paris. He died in the latter city on February 15th, 1732, and his body was judged worthy of burial in Westminster Abbey.

Attingians. [ATHINGANIANS.]

Attributes of God. - The special characteristic qualities which belong to Him alone, such as Omnipotence and Omniscience, Infinite Wisdom, Goodness, and Truth.

Attrition. A term used by Roman casuists to express that sorrow for sin which arises through fear of its penalties, or through the shame of exposure. In its better form it becomes REMORSE, and leads on towards CONTRITION, or true repentance.

A. U. C.-The initial letters of the Latin words, "Ab Urbe Condita," that is, of the era which was used by the Romans, who dated their years "from the Foundation of

the City." There was some variation in this date, but the year from which the Roman Emperors reckoned was B.C. 753. This era was superseded by the Christian Era in Italy in the 6th century, but not in Europe generally till many years later. It and the Greek Era of the Olympiads are of the greatest importance to Christian chronology.

Audæans.-The followers of Audæus, or Audius, a Syrian of Mesopotamia, who formed a sect in the early part of the fourth century. He seems to have been a man of ascetic mind, who preached with some extravagance against what he considered the luxurious living of the bishops and clergy, and who separated from the Church when his preaching brought down upon him the resentment of those whom he had attacked. The sect became an Episcopal one, for a bishop having joined it, Audæus was himself consecrated, his consecration being valid, though irregular, because contrary to the rule of the Church which requires at least three bishops for consecration. Many bishops eventually joined the sect of Audæus, being induced to do so by the ascetic life which was adopted. Yet it dwindled away under persecution, and did not live beyond the fifth century. The Audæans became ANTHROPOMORPHITES in respect to doctrine, and also adopted the custom of QUARTODECIMANS (q.v.) as regarded the time for the observance of Easter.

Audians. [AUDEANS.]

Audientes.-A name, "the Hearers," given in the Primitive Church to the several classes of catechumens and penitents who were permitted to hear Divine Service up to the end of the sermon, but not to be present during the actual celebration of the Eucharist. In the orderly arrangement of the congregation adopted in the Primitive Church, the place for the Audientes was the Narthex, or ANTE CHAPEL (q.v.). When the sermon was ended, the deacon dismissed them with the words, "Let none of the Hearers nor of the unbelievers be present."

Auditores. [AUDIENTES.]

Audoenus, Sr., known in France as St. Quen 595-683], Bishop of Rouen for fortyfour years. He served the Church not only by his labours on behalf of religious houses, but by opposing both Simony and the Monothelite heresy, which had obtained much hold in his country. He is commemorated on the 24th of August. The beautiful church at Rouen which bears his name was built over his burial-place in the 14th century.

Audry, Sr.-A popular form of the name of ST. ETHELDREDA, chiefly interesting because, from its use in the case of "Saint Andrey's Fair," the word "tawdry" originated. [ETHELDREDA.]

Augmentations, COURT OF.-This was a court which was established at the dissolu

tion of the monasteries by Henry VIII., for the purpose of receiving and managing the funds belonging to them.

Augsburg, CONFESSION OF. [PROTESTANT CONFESSIONS.]

Augustine, St. (1) [a.D. 354—430.].— This renowned Father of the Church was born on Nov. 13th, 354, at Tagaste, in Numidia. He was Bishop of Hippo for thirty-five years, and as one of the four great teachers of the Church, became known as "the Doctor of Grace." [DOCTOR.] His father, Patricius, whom he calls "a poor freeman of Tagaste,' did not profess Christianity at the time of Augustine's birth, but was afterwards converted and baptised. His mother, Monnica, was certainly a Christian at the period of his birth, and had probably been baptised in her infancy. He appears to have been the only child of his mother, and, as was natural, there was the most tender affection between them all their lives. Unfortunately for Augustine, his mother did not bring him to baptism in his early days, dreading that he would fall into sin after being baptised. "My cleansing was deferred," he says, in his confession, "because the defilements of sin would, after that washing, bring greater and more perilous guilt." Until he was thirty-three years of age, and during his youth, his mother's good influence was too weak to prevent him from falling into a self-willed course of very vicious living, especially while he was receiving his higher education at Carthage, which he called Babylon. For nine years also, from the age of nineteen to that of twentyeight, he combined with this reckless vice the heresy of MANICHEISM (q.v.). About thirty, he abandoned both the heresy and the habitual vice, and took up with the philosophy of the NEO-PLATONISTS (q.v.), and although there was little of Christianity in their opinions, he was brought under better influences, and especially was led to the study of Holy Scripture.

Augustine had long been a lecturer in the schools of Carthage, and about this time he returned to Tagaste, his native place, to engage in the teaching of rhetoric there. He soon, however, returned to Carthage, and from thence removed to Rome, still following the same profession, in A.D. 383. Disappointed of success at Rome, he went to Milan, where he was joined by his mother, and where a new life opened itself out before him; for at Milan he came in contact with Ambrose, the great and popular bishop of that city, under the influence of whose preaching and example Augustine was converted to Christianity. He was baptised by St. Ambrose, together with his dearly-beloved natural son, ADEODATUS, on April 25th, 387, Augustine being then thirty-three years of age, and his son fifteen.

The earlier years of his Christian life were

spent by St. Augustine in retirement and study. Soon after his baptism he set out, with his mother and his son, to return to Africa. Monnica died on the way, at Ostia, and in his grief Augustine went to Rome, where he remained for more than a year, spending his time in writing and speaking against his former associates, the Manichees. After this, he returned with Adeodatus to Tugaste, where he established a small monastic community, consisting of friends who, like himself, aspired after a stricter life of personal holiness and good works than seemed possible when living in the ordinary freedom of society. Thus three years passed away in study and writing and in prayer, acts of self-discipline, and charitable works among the poor; and during that time another great sorrow came upon St. Augustine in the early death of his pious son, Adeodatus.

In A.D. 390, when he was more than thirtyfive years of age, his clerical life began. He went on a visit to a friend, who was an official of the Empire at Hippo Regius, a small seacoast town, the ruins of which still exist in the east of Algeria, and immediately opposite the southern end of Sardinia. There he became acquainted with Valerius, the Bishop of Hippo, who at once ordained him to the priesthood. This epoch of his life we have narrated in his own words in a sermon which he preached at Hippo many years afterwards on "The Life and Conversation of the Clergy," and in which, with his customary outspokenness respecting himself, he thus records the circumstances of his ordination:-"I, whom by the grace of God ye thus see as your bishop, came as a young man to this city, as many of you know. I was looking for a place where to form a monastery to live with my brethren. For all worldly hopes I had abandoned, and what I might have been I would not be; nor yet sought I to be what I am. 'I chose rather to be cast down in the house of my God than to dwell in the tents of the ungodly.' I separated me from those who love the world, nor yet did I set myself with those who are placed over the people. Nor in the Feast of my Lord did I choose the higher place,' but the lower and abject one, and it pleased Him to say to me, 'Go up higher.' But so exceedingly did I dread the Episcopate, that because my reputation had now begun to be of some account among the servants of God, I would not go to any place where I knew there was no bishop. For I was afraid of this, and did what I could, that in a low place I might be saved, lest in a high one I should be perilled. But, as I said, the servant must not oppose his Master. I came to this city to see a friend whom I thought I might gain to God, that he might live with us in the monastery; I came as being safe, the place having a bishop already. I was laid

hold of, made a presbyter, and by this step came to the Episcopacy."

It is probable, especially from the eager. ness with which Bishop Valerius enlisted the services of St. Augustine, that even as a priest only he occupied an important position in the Church of Hippo. Perhaps in an office similar to that of dean he became archpresbyter, or the chief of the priests, at Hippo, as St. Athanasius had been chief of the deacons, or archdeacon, at Alexandria. But after three or four years, the voice "Go up higher" was heard, and he was consecrated coadjutor to the bishop, the death of Valerius a few months later opening the way for him to become his successor as actual Bishop of Hippo. His "Confessions," a kind of spiritual autobiography, are a rich mine of material for his personal history during the time of his life as a layman, and his "Retractations are a review of his literary work nearly to the time of his death; but there is little recorded of his life and work simply as bishop of his diocese. He lived in a somewhat ascetic manner, surrounded by a number of his clergy, who, like himself, preferred the common life of a monastic society to any other mode of living. He gave up much time to the education of those who were candidates for the ministry. Every day he was accessible in a court which he held for the personal administration of Christian equity. He was also indefatigable in preaching and the ordinary duties of the episcopal office. But beyond this, there is little detailed record of St. Augustine's life as a bishop. There is, however, a touching passage in one of his later sermons, in which, after occupying his high office for more than thirty years, he appeals to his people in a manner that he would scarcely have done unless he had been speaking heart to heart, and appealing to those from whom he was sure of a loving response. "I have not presumption enough,' he says, "to imagine that I have never given any of you subject of complaint against me during the time I have exercised the functions of the Episcopacy. If then, overwhelmed at times with the cares and duties of my office, I have not granted audience to you when you asked it, or if I have received you with an air of coldness or abstraction; if I have ever spoken to any one with severity; if, by any thing whatever in my answers, I have wounded the feelings of the afflicted who implored my succour; if, occupied with other thoughts, I have neglected or deferred assisting the poor, or shown, by any displeasure in my countenance, that I deemed them too importunate in their solicitations; lastly, if I have betrayed too much acuteness of feeling with respect to the false suspicions that some have entertained against me; and if, through the weakness of human nature, I have conceived unjust opinions of others: in return, pardon me, O my people, to whom I confess

all my faults—pardon me for them, I conjure you, and so also shall you obtain the pardon of your sins."

But St. Augustine was much more than Bishop of Hippo. In his time the great schism of the Donatists was rending into fractions the Christianity of North Africa, setting up altar against altar, church against church [DONATISTS]. In his efforts to defend the unity of the Church he was so successful that whereas at the beginning of his Episcopate the schismatics were split up into innumerable parties, united in nothing but opposition to the Church, and having as many as four hundred bishops in Africa; at its close a large number of Donatist bishops had passed over to the Church at the head of their flocks, and the schism had almost disappeared. equal vigour and equal success St. Augustine combated the errors of PELAGIANISM (q.v.), which, however, did not at any time form the basis of an organised sect. The chief of these errors was the denial of original sin, and the assertion that man can of his own will work out his salvation without the assistance of God's grace. Against Pelagianism St. Augustine preached and wrote for twenty years of his life; and while he contributed largely to its extinction at that time, his works remained for all subsequent ages as an efficient antidote to its subtle revivals.

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With

It was in the midst of St. Augustine's Episcopate that the Roman Empire began to fall finally to pieces. Rome was taken and sacked by the Goths under Alaric, in A.D. 410, when Christians grew sad and desponding, as if the end of the world were near, while pagans attacked their faith as if Christianity were the cause of all the disasters that had occurred since the world had come under its influence. It was at this crisis that St. Augustine brought forward his learned and beautiful work on "The City of God," in which he undertook to defend the workings of God's providence, to show the solidity of the city which hath foundations," and the instability of paganism. But as the great Father's life drew towards its close it was overclouded by the ruin which drew near to his own diocese. Genseric, the King of the Vandals, advanced from Spain into North Africa, by the treachery of Count Boniface, and by alliance with the Moors succeeded in devastating the Roman province. Boniface repented of his treachery, and endeavoured to rid the province of the wild foe whom he had brought into it, but he was defeated time after time, and was at last shut up in the city of Hippo, which was closely besieged. The aged bishop foresaw what the result would be, and though he supported his people with encouragement and consolation, he yet prayed that he might be spared the sight of their destruction. His prayer was heard, and he passed away on August 28th, 430, in the third month of the siege. In the following year the city was

taken, but the Vandals respected the body of the saint, and also his library. The body was taken to St. Stephen's, in Sardinia, when Augustine's successor fled thither from persecution in A. D. 505. It was afterwards removed thence to Pavia, about A. D. 713. There it was discovered in A.D. 1695, and was at last returned to the city of his rule on October 23rd, 1842. He is commemorated in the calendars of the Church on August 28th, the day of his death, and no ecclesiastical writer ever won greater veneration by his works.

These works fill twelve folio volumes, and form a most rich treasure of scriptural exposition as well as of theological argument. Many of them have been translated into English, and among those so translated which are not controversial may be mentioned his Commentaries on the Psalms, and Homilies on St. John, "The City of God," a large number of his letters, many of his sermons, a series of "Practical Treatises," and his "Confessions."

Augustine, Sr. (2) [d. A.D. 605]. The first Archbishop of Canterbury. Nothing is known of this great missionary before the year 596, when he must have been a man somewhat advanced in years, since he then comes before us as the Prior of the Benedictine Monastery of St. Andrew, at Rome, where he appears to have succeeded Gregory the Great when that great man became Pope in A.D. 590.

While the latter was a deacon in the church and a brother in the Monastery of St. Andrew, which he had built on the site of his own house on the Coelian Mount, news reached him that a fresh cargo of slaves had been imported and was on view in the marketplace. He had already exerted himself mightily to check this great evil, which at that time disgraced all civilised Europe. It was mainly carried on by Jews. On arriving in the market he was attracted by the beauty of three flaxen-haired youths among the captives. Turning to the person in charge of them, he asked where they came from, and was told from Britain; and inquiring further if they were Christians, was told by the merchant that they were pagans. After an exclamation of regret Gregory asked what was the name of the nation to which these youths belonged, and was told they were called Angles. He caught at the word, and exclaimed, "Angles? Angels, rather, for angel-like they are. But to what province do they belong?" 'Deira,' was the reply, that being the southern portion of what we now call the "North country ". Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, with part of Lancashire and Yorkshire. and from God's ire (de irá Dei) they shall be rescued and brought over to the grace of Christ. And what is their king's name?" "It is Ella." "Fitly so called, for Alleluia (written in the abbreviated form of "Alla " in

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"Ay,