favourable circumstances for the performance of the remaining operations of turning and smoothing, for being furnished with handles, spouts, and such appendages as cannot be affixed in its first formation.

For making circular dishes, plates, saucers, or shallow bowls, and other vessels of that class, a plaster mould is used. This is slightly sprinkled with powdered porcelain, sifted through a fine cloth, and placed on the block which surmounts the upright spindle of the lathe. The block being then set in motion, the clay is fashioned in the first place by the hand of the workmen, which presses it against the mould, and afterwards with a profile to give the requisite internal form. If any ledge or foot is required, it is affixed afterwards with slip, in the manner hereafter described as employed for joining handles and spouts. All superfluous parts are cut away, and the whole is finished by means of a horn tool and a damp sponge. When sufficiently dry to be taken from the moulds, the edges are pared with a sharp knife, and the pieces are slightly polished by the hand. After this, they are placed in piles of four, six, ten, or more, according to their weight and solidity, and are left to harden, preparatory to their being put in the oven.

The turning-lathe of the potter (fig. 2.) is similar to that used by the turner in wood. The end of the spindle has a screw thread, upon which are screwed chucks of wood, tapered in their form, and differing in their diameters according to the size of the article to be turned. The tools employed are of different sizes, from a quarter of an inch to two inches broad, and six inches long, they are made of iron, the cutting end being turned up about a quarter of an inch, and ground to a good edge.

The vessel to be turned being fixed upon the chuck, and motion communicated to the lathe, the turner proceeds to reduce the substance of the clay in such parts as are required, to form rings and rims upon the vessel, and generally to attend to those little niceties of shape which are not easily attainable on the throwing lathe. When this is completed, a contrary motion is given to

the spindle, the turner applies the flat part of his tool to

the vessel, and using a gentle pressure, produces the requisite smoothness of surface and solidity of texture.

In those considerable establishments which are furnished with a steam-engine, the throwing and turning lathes are both actuated by it. To the first of these machines motion is then given by means of two upright cones, placed opposite to each other; the apex of the one answering to the base of the other. One of these cones receives motion directly from the engine, and communicates it by means of a leather strap to the other. By this arrangement the horizontal strap has always an equal tension to whichever parts of the cones it is applied, the enlargement of the one answering to the diminishing diameter of the other; but the speed given to the lathe will depend upon the position on the driving cone which the strap occupies: if this is at the the small part, the driven cone, and consequently, the

revolving-board of the lathe will travel more slowly, and its revolutions will, on the other hand, be accelerated in proportion as the strap is made to occupy the larger part of the driving cone. When the strap takes its position on the largest part of this, it will apply to the smallest part of the driven cone, and the speed of the lathe will be at its maximum. The position of the strap upon the cone is regulated at pleasure by a winch, a boy in attendance upon which follows the directions of the thrower. When the article is finished the strap is thrown off the driving cone, and the motion of the lathe of course ceases.

The turning lathes, when actuated by the steamengine, are arranged in a row, the whole length of the room, through which runs a horizontal shaft, and this has fixed upon it, opposite to each lathe, a drum, straps on which connect the shaft with the lathes. The speed of the lathes is regulated by providing pulleys of different sizes, upon any one of which the strap may be guided by the turner during the revolutions of the spindle. When the turning of the vessel is finished, the strap is transferred to another pulley connected by a crossed strap with the spindle, which by that means has a reversed motion communicated to it, and the article under operation is smoothed and polished in the manner already described.

A milled edge is given to earthenware in what is called an engine lathe, where, in addition to the rotary motion communicated to the article, it has likewise a horizontal movement to and fro, enabling the workman to make the requisite incisions at proper and definite intervals.

When the vessels are taken from the turning-lathe, they are delivered to the handler, who fixes upon them handles, spouts, and other appendages of that nature. These are affixed to the vessels by means of slip, with which the parts brought into contact are moistened. Being then left for a short time to dry, the junction is found to be perfect; and with a knife the superfluous clay is removed from about it: the whole vessel is next cleaned

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with a damp sponge, which moistens the whole equally, and gives uniformity to its appearance.

Handles, spouts, and objects of that nature are made with the aid of a press, consisting of a small metallic cylinder, which has an aperture in the centre of its bottom, to which plugs with differently shaped orifices are fitted. It has also a piston, actuated by a screw, which works through an iron bow attached to opposite sides of the cylinder. The aperture in the bottom being furnished with a plug of the desired form, and the cylinder charged with clay, the piston is inserted, and by the turning of the screw is forced down upon the clay, causing it to protrude through the aperture in the proper shape. This being cut into lengths, and bent into the required form, is, when sufficiently dry, affixed to the vessel as already mentioned. If the clay is required to take a hollow cylindrical form, as it must for spouts, a pin of the same diameter as it is wished to give the tube is fixed above the centre of the plug. It is obvious that some ornamented spouts cannot be made by this means. For forming such, two moulds of plaster must be prepared in the manner hereafter described, one half of the figure being impressed in each of the moulds, which must fit together accurately. Clay is then forced into each mould, and the superfluous quantity being cut away, leaving still a small portion above the level of the moulds, the two are brought firmly together to unite the two halves of the article. The mould is then divided,

the clay is removed, and finished as to its form with suitable tools by the workman. This is the operation known under the name of pressing. The moulds for the purpose are made with plaster of Paris, (gypsum, or the native sulphate of lime,) the peculiar fitness of which material for the purpose, arises from its property of absorbing water with very great rapidity, so that the ware enclosed within it speedily dries in a sufficient degree to deliver itself (according to the workman's phrase) easily from the mould.

Small ornaments, such as figures, animals foliage,

and the like, are more conveniently made by pressing the clay in plaster moulds, or otherwise these are made of copper, which must previously be slightly smeared with oil, in order to ensure the easy delivery of the ornaments. These are then affixed to the vessel by means of slip, according to the method already described. It is in this manner that drinking jugs are so commonly ornamented with figures in relief.

In order to prepare the plaster for making moulds, it is first ground between a pair of stones, in a mill exactly similar to that employed for grinding wheat; it is next boiled in order to drive off the water which forms a considerable constituent part of its natural substance. There is an appearance of absurdity in thus speaking of boiling a dry earthy substance; but the workmen who use the term, are not very far wrong in their expression. To all appearance, ebullition goes rapidly on in this operation, and there is a disengagement of steam as in the boiling of watery fluids. When this process is completed, the substance is always called boiled plaster. The evaporation is conducted in long brick troughs, having a fire flue running under their entire length, in a manner similar to the slip-kiln. The man who superintends the process, is obliged to wear a handkerchief over his mouth and nostrils, to prevent the passage of any particles of the gypsum to his lungs, or stomach, such a circumstance having been found very prejudicial to health.

The plaster when thus deprived of its water becomes a soft impalpable powder, but when its natural proportion of water is again added, so strong is its affinity for that liquid, and such its capacity for again combining with itself that portion of which it has been deprived, that it attracts and condenses the whole, and will immediately set into a hard and very compact mass, peculiarly suitable for the purpose here required.

The consumption of plaster of Paris, in making moulds for plates and dishes is so considerable, that in the district comprehending the Potteries, in Staffordshir