feature, however, is that though the mechanism is enclosed in a case, it contains nothing that the Section requires to be marked upon it, and in any case, seeing that the worker has a clear and unobstructed view of the interior, marking would be no advantage to him.

There has been a slight alteration of the basic rates of woollen and worsted pattern weavers and juveniles mostly employed in the worsted spinning trade on day wages, but no change other than the ordinary rise or fall in the "cost of living" bonus has been noticed in the rate of payment of operatives on piece-work in any textile trade.

The piece-work system appears on the whole to be extending, It has always been the principal method of payment in the larger and best equipped factories, but I have noticed during the past few years that it has been adopted also in some of the smaller works where formerly payment was entirely by time.

Twenty-eight complaints have been received of which only fourteen were substantiated. Two hundred and twenty notices of contravention have been sent out.

CHAPTER II.

THE YOUNG PERSON IN INDUSTRY.

Hilda Martindale, O.B.E.

(H.M. Deputy Chief Inspector of Factories).

During the past year particular attention has been given by the Inspectors to the employment of young persons in factories and workshops, and to the effect of industry on the health and general well-being of boys and girls, and special reports have been received from the women Deputy Superintending Inspectors reviewing the whole situation.

SELECTION OF YOUNG WORKERS.

The first matter for consideration was whether the number of young persons from 14-18 years of age employed in industry had increased or decreased. The abnormal trade conditions of recent years make accurate generalization difficult, but there is a consensus of opinion amongst the Inspectors that on the whole the number of young persons employed has decreased of late, although in some districts in the Midlands and Scotland the proportion of young persons employed to the adult labour remains fairly steady. The Superintending Inspector for the NorthEastern Division states that there has been a substantial decrease in the numbers of young persons employed, but a relative increase in those between 14 and 16 years, due to the fact that as machinery becomes more automatic in its action there is less call for semiskilled and more call for unskilled labour. It is also said to be quite a difficult matter to find a young person who is prepared to be apprenticed to a skilled trade, probably partly due to the fact that they can make a bigger wage in some of the unskilled trades. Although the selection of the girl and boy for the work they are to undertake is a very different proposition to that of the adult worker and should demand special care, it is found that in practice little consideration is given to it. It is indeed seldom that a careful choice is made with a view to finding the right worker for any particular job. Yet, when this is done, the advantage to both employer and worker is worth the trouble it entails. also is the transfer of young persons from job to job until the one most suited for them is found. Miss Slocock cites the case of a girl in a corset factory who, in the course of four months, had been tried on seven different operations, but was unable to earn more than 4d. an hour. She was given a last chance on quite a different operation, and at the end of one month her rate had risen to 4 d. an hour, and at the end of two months to 6d. The important matters of the engagement of the young persons, the allotment of the work they are to undertake, and their dismissal if unsatisfactory, are too often in the hands of the foreman instead

So

of a person skilled in selecting labour. The education of the foreman and forewoman in this side of their work is, therefore, of paramount importance but is usually neglected, though in some factories attention is being given to it. In one works possessing a full-time medical man the Inspector reports that this doctor considers that it is one of the most important duties of the Welfare Department to train the forewomen or shop supervisors in their responsibilities in connexion with the well-being of young persons. Another instance where special care is exercised in the selection and training of forewomen is that of a large confectionery works. Each passes through a series of stages as charge hands, starting with supervision of work only, and being given more responsibility later in handling staff. They are chosen particularly for their power of handling workers. Lectures have been arranged for them and some were sent lately to a conference on psychology at Oxford. This question of vocational selection is also one to which special attention is given in works in which welfare organisations have been established, and welfare supervisors, entrusted with the selection of the young workers, regard it as one of their most important duties, as it helps to establish a relationship with the boy or girl which is invaluable.

EFFECT OF INDUSTRY ON HEALTH OF YOUNG

PERSONS.

Employment. In estimating the effect of industry on the health of young persons it is obvious that the length of their hours of employment must receive first consideration. Accordingly, inquiry has been made with a view to arriving at the present day practice, although it was realized that in consequence of the depression in trade the hours worked would probably be less than would be the case when industry revived. In the course of the investigation the fact emerged that young persons of all ages are generally employed under ordinary circumstances during the same hours as the adults working in the same department. Again, little distinction is made by employers between the young person of 14-16 years and those between 16-18 years. All are called upon to work the same length of time. It is true that this similarity in the hours of employment of the adult and the adolescent is largely due to the fact that their work is interdependent, but even in factories where this is not the case, their hours are usually the same. It has been shown in the paragraph on Employment in the General Report (Chapter I), that while the standard working hours for adults and young persons are about 48 hours per week, hours in excess of this are worked from time to time to meet special trade demands. The share taken by young persons in this overtime varies with different firms, but generally it may be said that in the majority of cases young persons from 14 years of age are employed with the others when overtime is necessary. Occasionally firms have been found where

the employment of young persons for longer than 8 hours a day was thought to be illegal, and accordingly the young persons had been sent home when the women began to work on so-called overtime, but such factories are rare. It should be borne in mind that while these extra hours are regarded as and often called overtime, they are not overtime within the meaning of the Factory Acts, and are in no sense illegal.

In estimating the hours of employment it is impossible to dissociate the time spent in travelling to and from work. In the country factories undoubtedly the motor buses have done much to improve transit and to make long walks and cycle rides unnecessary, or at least to reduce them. Some factories have started their own buses, while others have prevailed on companies to time their buses to suit factory hours. In London, however, in spite of travelling facilities, many of the daily journeys are long, and it has been estimated that often the time spent in travelling is not less than one hour each way.

Little tangible information has been obtained as to the effect of the present periods of employment on the health of young persons. This can only be gauged by intensive inquiry coupled with medical examination. There is, however, a consensus of opinion that short breaks during the morning and afternoon spells have made a reduction in fatigue noticeable, this being measured roughly by output and quality of work and by the worker's general appearance, which shows less signs of flagging at the end of the spell. The effects of fatigue are, as one Inspector points out, entangled with and modified or exaggerated by other factors. Where the atmosphere of a factory is happy and friendly many disagreeable elements in the work can be borne.

Dangerous Trades.-That young persons are not subjected to any extent to injury to health in connexion with dangerous trades is evident from the fact that the number of young persons employed in processes under Special Regulations or under the Lead Processes Act, 1920, is small.

Young persons are employed to a certain extent in dangerous processes in the potteries, indiarubber works, electric accumulator works, and in coach and motor painting, heading of yarn, in wool and hair factories and tanning, work which brings them into contact with lead, anthrax and chrome, but the returns show that during last year only 11 boys and 4 girls were notified as suffering from industrial poisoning out of a total number of 568 reported cases. It is evident, therefore, that the young person is not affected to any considerable extent by dangerous processes, which the increasing number of Codes of Special Regulations show to be an important factor in industry.

Heavy Work.-Closely akin to employment in dangerous processes is that in which lifting of weights and other heavy work is entailed. Although there is a distinct advance in the provision

of mechanical appliances for the lifting of heavy weights and heavy work generally, the use of travelling bands, overhead runways and chutes, suitable trolleys and trucks being on the increase, still, young persons are subjected in certain industries to work of a fairly heavy manual nature, although it does not appear that they are being pressed or even encouraged to do work beyond their strength. Probably the invention of labour-aiding devices has stimulated thought on the matter, with the result that the weight of the article to be lifted is now more fully realised than in the past, when the result of testing by means of scales of articles found to be carried by young persons was usually met by astonishment on the part of the occupier or manager. One Inspector is of the opinion that young persons do more heavy lifting with some other person than heavy lifting alone, and that it is often unauthorised, and the boy called by a man to " lend a hand" may often be required to lift 90 per cent. of his own weight.

On the other hand, Miss Keely reports that she "has been much impressed by the exceedingly light nature of much of the work which is done, particularly by girls. Such processes as wrapping chocolates in tinfoil, assisting at chocolate enrobing and other automatic machines, taking basting threads out of garments and many other operations in the clothing trades, laying-on at printing machines, labelling, assembling and packing small objects, and numbers of other occupations need the use of very few muscles and give very little exercise to body or mind. Book-folding, tending reeling and winding machines, and working corner-staying, platen and other pedal-operated machines are slightly more active occupations, while much laundry work is comparatively vigorous. Girls who are employed on such light sedentary work must need more opportunities for exercise in their free time than they have at present. Boys whose work is, on the whole, much more active, are far better provided with games and clubs."

Posture. The fact that much of the work done by girls in factories is of a kind requiring little movement makes it all the more imperative that attention should be given to posture, an important matter where boys and girls are concerned. The enquiries, however, show that it is exceedingly rare that any attempt is made to ensure that young workers are standing or sitting in the position best suited for their work. Frequently no seats are provided when part of the work could well be done sitting, or if seats are provided they are merely wooden boxes or stools without backs or foot rests, and tall and short workers have no choice in the height of their seats. The result is that many spend their days sitting in a position which entails stooping over their work which must have a deleterious effect on health-round shoulders and poor chest expansion being far too common. Hinged seats which can be easily pushed under the work-bench, and adjustable seats would allow the young worker to sit when he desires to do so and would help to ensure an improvement in posture.