the extent be moderate, and the boundary beautiful. As much wood is essential to the imitation of the farms of our ancestors, a spot may easily be found, where turrets rising above the covert, or some arches seen within it, may have the resemblance of a castle or abbey. The partial concealment is almost necessary to both; for to 'accord with the age, the buildings must seem to be entire; the ruins of them belong to later days: the disguise is, however, advantageous to them as objects; none can be imagined more picturesque than a tower bosomed in trees, or a cluster appearing between the stems and the branches. Pieces of water are also a great additional beauty in such a scene; and all the varieties of rills are consistent with every species of farm. Farming is, however, a serious and very important pursuit with a large portion of our countrymen; who can but very slightly regard the mere external beauties of the scene of their labors. In our article AGRICULTURE we have largely discussed the scientific basis and connections of that pursuit; and referred, as we must here do, to that of HUSBANDRY for the practical rules and details of farming. We shall only in this place suggest a few principal considerations on the laying out of farm-lands, the construction of farm-buildings, or farmeries, as they have been called of late, and the keeping of farm accounts; topics, which may with propriety be thus detached from our larger articles.

1. On the Laying out of Farm Lands.-On the supposition of our being able to follow nature in the distribution of farm lands, or indeed in almost any ordinary departure from her dictates, the first object of attention to the proprietor of an estate should be its natural characteristics. He should consider it as in a state of nature, and without inhabitants; observing the elevation and general turn of its surface, whether it consists of mountain, upland, vale, or waterformed land; ascertaining at the same time its soils, the absorbency or retentiveness of the substrata, determining to what uses its several parts are adapted. Having, for instance, determined on the sheep-walk and grazing ground, he should trace the natural and fortuitous lines of the culturable lands; as the feet of steep hills, the ridges of uplands, large rivers, public roads, &c. Where an extent of newly appropriated lands is concerned, he must endeavour to lay them out into what may be termed natural farms, of such sizes as will bring the most permanent rent at the least expense of buildings, yards, separate roads, and fences.

A first object of consideration will now be, the most natural or eligible sites for farm-steads; laying to those which are the most eligible such lands as by natural situation and quality belong to them. The principal requisites of a homestall, for a farm in mixed cultivation, are shelter and water for domestic and farm-yard purposes, with some permanent grass ground below the yards, to receive the overflowings of the dungbasins, that nothing of manure may escape or be lost. If lands lie in a shelving situation, it is desirable to have the home-stead near the midway of the slope; thus having lands above as well as below the yards; so that neither the whole of the

crops, nor of the dung, may require to be drawn against the hill at one time. A dip, or shallow valley, with a natural stream falling down it, and with lands in the lower part of it, which are capable of being converted into watered mowingground, will, speaking generally, prove a desirable site for a home-stead.

An inhabited estate however, with the farmsteads and fences fixed, and the buildings substantial, requires much thought and care to reform as to its general distribution. The lands of different farms often lie scattered and intermixed through circumstances perhaps that were originally unavoidable; through indulgencies to favorite tenants; or through the ignorance or negligence of managers; but something may generally be done towards lessening or remedying this evil; opportunities may be watched, and amicable changes between tenants made. Lands which lie compact and convenient to the home-stall are worth far more to an occupier than those of the same intrinsic value, scattered at a distance; so that by this sort of exchange an advantage may sometimes be secured to two or more tenants at the same time.

Where the farms are too large, or the farmsteads very improperly placed, but the existing buildings are in a substantial state, it requires to be calculated whether the increase of rent, by any proposed alteration of them, will pay for the money required to be laid out in making it, taking into the account the superiority of new buildings. The erecting of an entire range of farm-buildings, with the requisite appendages, is an undertaking which of course demands mature consideration. There are cases, however, in which it may be effected with profit, and many in which it may be done with credit and respectability to those employed.

Where the farms of an estate have been made too small, suitable consolidations should be made, and each of these be colored on the maps as one farm, the alterations being afterwards made as circumstances may direct; preference being ever given to the most deserving managers, and every fair opportunity taken to dismiss the undeserving. By this easy means, giving the mes impressive lesson on good management to the tenantry of the estate, the best effects are prcduced.

The

It is to be further remarked, on the subject of laying out farm-lands into suitable tenements, that although compactness of form, and centrality of home-stall are always desirable, they are not the only objects to be attended to. specific qualities of the lands of the estate are another subject of consideration. If the lands of an estate are naturally adapted to different purposes, as cool strong lands, fit for perennial mowing-grounds, especially if they can profitably watered, and dry uplands that are suitable for mixed cultivation only; a portion of each ought, according to long-established ideas, to be included in every farm: a principle this, however, which is very often destructive of the compactness of form. A more modern opinion is, that perennial grass-lands are not at all necessary to profitable farming, cultivated herbage and roots being equal to all the wants of modern

be

south; in order that the crops on either side of them may receive equal sun. In this case, consequently, the fences, which form the two longer sides of the quadrangle, should take that direction. But, where the surface is steep, this principle of direction must give way to another of great importance. If the land be retentive, and the soil require to be laid up into round beds, across the slope, the direction of the ridges must be guided by the face of the slope; and the fences, on the general principle, ought to take the same direction; observing, in this case, where circumstances will admit, to let them wind to the right of a person standing on the brink of the slope, and facing towards it; as the beds ought to take that direction for the greater ease in ploughing them. Where the face of a hill is steep, and the land absorbent, the soil requires to be turned downwards of the slope with a turnwrest or Kentish plough; and the fences to be directed by the natural lines of the hill.

The supply of water is the main consideration in laying out grazing grounds, cow grounds, and pasture grounds in general. Wherever good water is found naturally, or can be conveniently brought by art, to that point a pasture ground ought to tend, in order to enjoy the supply as much as possible. In laying out water-meadows, where they are situated on sloping grounds, or the higher sides of which adjoin to upper lands, the main conductor (where a proper fall from the source of the water will admit of it) ought to define the outline of the meadow on that side; and the fence which separates the meadow lands from the dry grounds ought to run immediately along the upper side of the water-course; the two thus becoming natural guards to each other. Within an extended flat, or an extent of gently shelving meadow grounds, belonging to different proprietors, and where deep ditches are required to be sunk on the upper sides of the fences, to drain the lands that lie above them, the plan here recommended would be improper. But in the situations described above it is perfectly eligible, and ought not, in ordinary cases, to be departed from.

The size of fields, it has been observed by a modern writer, must bear some proportion to the strength of the farmer with regard to ploughs and horses. For instance, where six two-horse ploughs are kept, and where it is difficult, from the nature of the soil, to have the fields of a large extent sufficiently dry, from eighteen to twentyfive English acres are considered to be a convenient size. With twelve horses a field of this extent can always be finished in four, or at the utmost in five days. There is less risk, therefore, of being overtaken by bad weather, and prevented from completing the preparation of the land for the internal crop. When the fields are of too great an extent, in proportion to the stock kept, a considerable interval must occur between the sowing of the first and of the last part; and it will in general be desirable to have each field cleared at the same time in harvest. The harrowing also is done more economically, when the field is sown at once, than in several portions; and where rolling is required, that operation being most effectually done across, it cannot well be

accomplished till the field has been completed, Hence the advantages of having the size of the fields in some degree commensurate to the stock of working animals upon the farm.'

"Though on large farms,' continues this writer, fields should, in general, be formed on an extensive scale, there is a convenience in having a few smaller fields near the farm-house for keeping the family cows; for turning out young horses, mares, and foals; for raising a great variety of vegetables; and for trying experiments on a small scale, which may afterwards be extended, if they shall be found to answer. Where enclosures are too large for particular purposes, and where no small fields, as above recommended, have been prepared, large fields may be subdivided by sheep-hurdles, a sort of portable fence well known to every turnip-grower. In this way great advantage may be derived from the constant use of land that would otherwise have been occupied by stationary fences; and the expense of subdivisions, which, on a large farm, would necessarily have been numerous, is thereby avoided. This fence is perfectly effectual against sheep, though it is not so well calculated for stronger animals. On dry soils, where sheep are generally pastured, it is not unlikely that, by using moveable hurdles, the expense of permanent fences might, in a great measure, be saved.'

In the Code of Agriculture it is observed, that when a whole farm is divided into fields of various sizes, it is difficult to form a plan, so as to suit a regular rotation of crops, or to keep very accurate accounts. Whereas, by having the fields in general of a large size, the whole strength of a farm, and the whole attention of the farmer, is directed to one point; while an emulation is excited among the ploughmen, when they are thus placed in circumstances which admit their work to be compared. Some small fields are certainly convenient on any farm, for grazing and other purposes, to be afterwards explained. elevated situations, also, the shelter derived from small enclosures is of use.

On

Sometimes a farm is situated on both sides of a highway; in which case all the fields may be made to open into it, either directly or through an intervening field. Here no private road is wanting, excepting a few yards to reach the farmery. But when, as is most generally the case, the lands are situated at a distance from a great road, and approached by a lane or bye-road, then from that bye-road a private road is required to the farmery, and a lane or lanes from it so contrived as to touch at most of the fields of the farm. In wet and clayey soils, these lanes must be formed of durable materials; but in dry soils, provided attention be paid to fill in the cart ruts as they are formed (by the leading out of dung, or home of corn,) by small stones, gravel, or even earth, the lane may remain green; and being fed with sheep or cattle will not be altogether lost. It is essentially necessary to make a piece of road at the gate of every enclosure, being the spot which is most frequently in use. Without this precaution, it often becomes a mire where corn is thrown down and spoiled in harvest, or if it is attempted to avoid the mire, the gate-posts and neighbouring fence are

often damaged. (Communications to the board of Agriculture, vol. ii.) With good private roads a farmer will perform his operations at much less expense; the labor of the horses will be much easier; a greater quantity or weight of grain and other articles may be more expeditiously carried over them; manure can be more easily conveyed to the fields; the harvest can be carried on more rapidly; and wear and tear of every description will be greatly reduced. (Code of Agriculture, p. 158.) The gates of fields, it has been observed, should in most cases be placed in the middle of that side of the field which is nearest the road; and not in an angle, or at one corner, unless particular circumstances point out this as the preferable mode.

On the subject of fences in general see HusBANDRY. Respecting one conspicuous boundary of some farms, hedge-row trees, a great difference of opinion prevails. While they improve the landscape, it seems to be agreed by the most intelligent agriculturists that they are extremely hurtful to the fence, and for some distance to the crops on each side; and it is evident, that in many instances the highways, on the sides of which they often stand, suffer greatly from their shade. It has therefore been doubted, whether such trees be profitable to the proprietor, or beneficial to the public; to the farmer they are almost in every case injurious, to a degree beyond what is commonly imagined. (Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica article AGRICULTURE.) Loch, however, a well informed improver of landed property, is of a different opinion. He says, there is no change in the rural economy of England more to be regretted, than the neglect which is now shown to the cultivation and growth of hedge-row timber. The injury which it does to the cultivation of the land is much exaggerated, especially if a proper selection of trees is made; but even the growth of the ash, so formidable to agriculturists, might be defended on the ground that, without it, the best implements employed in the cultivation of the soil could not be made. It is well known that good hedge-row timber is by far the most valua ble both for naval and domestic purposes. Its superior toughness rendering it equally valuable to the ship and to the plough-wright. The value which it is of, in affording shelter, is also of material use; besides, the raising of grain is not the only purpose of life, or the only matter to be attended to, nor the only object worthy of atten

tion.

The purposes of war and the national glory, the protection and extension of our commerce, the construction and repair of buildings, and even the enjoyment arising from the rich and beautiful effect produced by such decoration and ornament, are all objects of material importance to the well-being and constitution of a highly cultivated state of society. Even upon the more narrow basis of individual utility, this practice might be defended and recommended; for it is not useless to consider how many families and estates have been preserved, when pressed by temporary difficulties (from which none are exempted), from a fall of hedge-row timber. One of the best legacies, that a great proprietor can

leave his country and his family, is an estate well stocked with such. trees.

2. Of the arrangement of farm buildings, and the enclosures of a farmery.-According to Beatson, the first thing to be taken into consideration upon this subject is the nature and produce of the farm: hence may be judged the different kinds of accommodation that will be necessary. Every farm, for example, must have, 1. A dwelling-house; 2. A barn suitable to the extent of arable land in the farm, either with or without a threshing mill, but always with one if possible; and it should be endeavoured to place it so that it may go by water, if a supply can be had; 3. Stables, the dimensions of which must be determined according to the number of horses necessary for the farm; 4. Cow-houses, or feeding-houses, or both, according to the number of cows and cattle, and so on, till the whole accommodations and their dimensions are fixed upon.

Having ascertained these, and the situation for building on being also settled, the ground must be carefully and attentively viewed; and, if not very even, the different levels must be observed, and the best way of conducting all the necessary drains, and carrying off all superfluous moisture. Also the best situation for dung and urine-pits, or reservoirs, which will, in a great degree, ascertain at once where the cattle-houses and stables should be. These being fixed on, the barn should be as near them as possible, for the convenience of carrying straw to the cattle; and the barn-yard should be contiguous to the barn. These main points being determined on, the others will easily be found; always observing this rule, to consider what is the nature of the work to be done about each office, and then the easiest and least laborious way to perform that work, so far as it is connected with other offices. In case this should not be sufficiently explicit, suppose, by way of illustration, the situation of a feedinghouse is to be considered of. The nature of the work to be performed here is, bringing food and litter to the cattle, and taking away their dung. The place from whence the greatest part perhaps of their food and all their litter comes, is the barn; therefore the feeding-house should be as near the barn as possible. If turnips, or other roots, or cabbages, make a part of their food, the most commodious way of giving these must be determined on; whether by having a roothouse adjoining the cattle-house, and that filled occasionally, or by having a place to lay them down in, near the heads of the stall, from whence they are thrown in at holes left in the wall for that purpose. The easiest method of clearing away the dung must also be considered, and the distance from the main dung-pit and urine reservoir. The same general rule being observed in determining on the site of all the other offices or accommodations, together with a careful examination of the ground to be occupied (upon which the arrangement of the offices in a great measure should depend), any person conversant in rural affairs, who attends to these particulars, and can lay down his ideas in a drawing, may easily direct the planning and building of a very commodious set of offices. With respect to the

site of the dwelling-house, it may be remarked, that, although a house being situate in the middle of a regular front is, in some points of view, the most pleasing way, and in many situations perhaps the best, yet, unless the ground and other circumstances in every respect favor such a disposition, it should not invariably be adhered to; for it may often happen, that a much better situation for the dwelling-house may be obtained at a little distance from the offices, a pleasing uniformity be observed in them at the same time, and the house be more healthy and agreeable. In some cases, and for some kinds of farms, it may be particularly necessary to have the house so placed, in respect to the offices and farm-yard, as to admit of their being constantly inspected, and the labor that is to be performed in them attended to and overlooked.

The requisites of a farmstead,' says Mr. Marshall, are as various as the intentions of farms. A sheep-farm, a grazing-farm, a bay-farm, a dairy-farm, and one under mixed cultivation, may require different situations, and different arrangements of yards and buildings. On a farm of the last species, which may be considered as the ordinary farm of this kingdom, the principal requisites are shelter, water, an area or site sufficiently flat for yards and buildings; with meadow land below it, to receive the washings of the yards; as well as sound pasture grounds above it for a grass-yard and paddocks; with private roads nearly on a level to the principal arable lands; and with suitable outlets to the nearest or best markets.'

For a mixed husbandry farm, the particulars, to be arranged, according to Marshall, are thus enumerated; 1. A suit of buildings, adapted to the intended plan of management;-as a dwelling-house, barns, stables, cattle-sheds, cart-shed. 2. A spacious yard, common to the buildings, and containing a receptacle of stall-manure, whether arising from stables, cattle-sheds, hogstyes, or other buildings; together with separate folds, or straw-yards, furnished with appropriate sheds, for particular stock, in places where such are required. 3. A reservoir, or catchpool, situated on the lower side of the buildings and yards, to receive their washings, and collect them in a body for the purpose of irrigating the lands below them. 4. A corn yard, convenient to the barns; and a hay-yard contiguous to the cow or fatting-sheds. 5. A garden and fruit ground near the house. 6. A spacious grass-yard or green, embracing the whole or principal part of the conveniences; as an occasional receptacle for stock of every kind; as a common pasture for swine, and a range for poultry; as a security to the fields from stock straying out of the inner yards; and as an ante-field or lobby, out of which the home grounds and driftways may be conveniently entered. An accurate delineation of the site which is fixed on, requires,' he observes, 'to be drawn out on a scale; the plannist studying the subject, alternately, upon the paper, and on the ground to be laid out; continuing to sketch and correct his plan, until he has not a doubt left on his mind; and then to mark out the whole upon the ground, in a conspicuous and permanent manner, before the foundation of any par

ticular building be attempted to be laid. It may he adds, be conceived by a person who has not turned his attention to this subject, that there must be some simple, obvious, and fixed plan to proceed upon. But seeing the endless variety in the mere dwelling-places of men, it is not to be wondered at if a still greater variety of plans should take place where so many appurtenances are required, and these on sites so infinitely varíous; nor that men's opinions and practices should differ so much on the subject, that on a given site, no two practical men, it is more than probable, would make the same arrangement.' There are, however,' he says, 'certain principles which no artist ought to lose sight of in laying out such buildings and conveniences. The barns, the stables, and the granary, should be under the eye, should be readily seen from the dwellinghouse. The prevailing idea, at present, is, that the several buildings ought to form a regular figure, and enclose an area or farm-yard, either as a fold for loose cattle, or, where the stalling of cattle is practised, as a receptacle for dung, and the most prevailing figure is the square. But this form is, he thinks, more defective than the oval or circle, the angles being too sharp, and the corners too deep. Besides, the roadway, necessary to be carried round a farm-yard in order to have a free and easy passage between the different buildings, is inconveniently lengthened or made at greater expense. The view of the whole yard and buildings from the house, on one side of it, is likewise more confined.' He on the whole prefers the complete octagon, the dwellinghouse a being on one side, and the entrance gateway and granary opposite; the remaining six sides being occupied by stables and cattle-sheds, and other out-buildings, c, d, e, a barn and threshing machine, f, with a broad-way, dipping gently from the buildings, g, and surrounding a wide shallow dung-basin, h, which occupy the rest of the area of the yard. Externally is a basin for the drainings of the yard, i; and grass enclosures for calves, poultry, fruit trees, and rick-yard.

The following plan of the arrangement of a small farm-house and offices, which he considers very convenient, is given by Beatson. At the north-west corner is the barn (1), with a water threshing-mill; a straw-house (2), being a continuation of the barn above, for holding a quantity of straw after it is threshed, or hay, that it may be at hand to give to the cattle in the feeding-house below. The upper part of this