The Egyptian bronze consisted, according to Basari, of two-thirds brass, and one-third copper. Pliny says, the Grecian bronze was formed by adding one-tenth lead, and onetwentieth silver, to the two-thirds brass and the one-third copper of the Egyptian bronze,' and this was the proportion afterwards made use of by the Roman statuaries. The Greek bronzes very obviously appear to possess a difference of composition to any that have been founded among the moderns. The famous Venetian horses (four in number), said to have been the work of Lysippus, exhibit at once, to bronzists, that the ancient metal of that name was, in its composition, very different from that which is now made and called after that designation :-the modern bronze is commonly made of two-thirds copper, fused with one-third of brass; and very lately, from the great demand for all kinds of ornaments in this metal, in forming the decorative parts to pur apartments, and supports to our articles of furniture, lead, with zinc in small proportions, have been added to the copper and brass, These rariations have been one cause of the greater brilliancy and compactness to be observed in modern castings of this metal, in comparison of those founded a few years since. So common is bronze-work become at this time, that every petty brass-worker pretends to be an adept in founding of this metal; however, nothing is to be feared in the attempt, as the efforts of such bronzists will not carry them beyond the work of the furnace. The alloying of the several metals to form bronze is found to promote in it a readier fusibility than is possessed by either of its component parts in their pure metallic state; and this is a property very much to its advantage in the castings of large works. Modern works in bronze become numerous in proportion to the advancement in the arts. Bronze-casting is employed in forming equestrian statues, colossal and other figures in alto-relievo, to set off and adorn public places. It is competent, when in the hand of an artist, of giving a zest to architecture; inasmuch as by its tint, as well as by the great variety of the forms it is susceptible of being made into, it is able to add richness by its opposition, and at the same time it finishes the forms of those parts of architecture requiring it. See BRONZE. In that article we have noticed Macqueir's mode of casting large works. Bronze-casting is also performed in the following manner, viz. 1. The figure or pattern to be cast must have a mould, and this is prepared and laid on a plaster cast, previously wrought and finished by the sculptor. The mould is made of plaster of Paris, rendered moist by being mixed up with water; to this preparation is added brick-dust, in the proportion of one-third of the former to twothirds of the latter. This is carefully laid on the mould, with strength in proportion to the weight of metal intended to be used in the founding. In its joints small channels should be cut tending upwards, and from different parts of the internal hollow, to allow of vent for the air to escape through, as the heated metal runs in upon the mould. A thin layer of clay should be spread over the inside of it, and of the thickness which it is intended the bronze should be. Within-side the clay, a filling up of plaster and brick-dust, in the proportions as before described, will be required to compose the core: but, if the work to be cast be large, before the plaster and brickdust are poured into the mould to form the core, a skeleton composed of iron bars, as a support for the figure, should be prepared and fixed; after which the filling up of the core may be proceeded in. When this is done, the mould must be opened again, and the layer of clay taken out of it, and the core thoroughly dried, and even burned with a charcoal fire, or with straw; for, if the least damp remain, the cast will be blown to pieces when the hot metal comes in contact with it, in running it into the mould, and the workmen employed about the work be maimed or killed by the dispersion of the heated bronze. After the core, &c., has been properly dried, and is deemed ready for the work, it should be laid in the mould, and supported in its place by short rods of bronze, which should run through the mouid into the core. All being so far advanced, the mould should be clad and bound round with iron, of strength proportionate to the size of the work to be cast; after which, the mould should be laid in a situation for running in the metal, and must be supported for the purpose by bricks, &c. Great care should be taken that every part be perfectly dried, before any metal be run into the mould; or, as has been before observed, the most fatal consequences will arise to those who may be about the work. A channel must be made from the furnace in which the melted metal is, in order to its running to the principal jet of the mould, and with a descent, to promote its flowing rapidly. The jets, furnace, &c. &c., are all contrived, as has been before described, for casting figures in brass. In Vesaris's Lives is a chapter on brass-founding; and there are also some very useful observations in the Life of Beivenuto Čellin; vide Pliny's Natural History. The smaller works in bronze are founded by previously being modelled in wax, to which a coating of clay is adapted and dried. Bronze works are cleaned up and repaired after being founded, in a similar manner to what figures in brass are, and with the same kind of tools; but this last touch of perfecting what may have been left imperfect by the mould, should invariably be done by the statuary or modeller himself; as no one is so competent to keep up the spirit of the original work, as he who invented it, and gave effect to his invention, by making the model. The principal works executed in London in bronze, claiming particular notice, are, the equestrian statue at Charing Cross, of Charles I.; the colossal statue of his late majesty, in the square of Somerset Place, by the late Mr. Bacon; the statue of Francis, duke of Bedford, on the south side of Russell Square: the equestrian statue of William III., in the centre of St. James's Square, the work of Mr. J. Bacon, jun.; and the Achilles,' in commemoration of Lord Wellington's victories, in Hyde Park. There are also many bronzes of great merit in the pro vinces. The manner of casting BELLS is similar to that of statues, except that the metal is different, there being in bell-metal about one fifth of tin, whereas there is no tin in the brass of statues. The dimensions of the core and wax in modelling a bell, if it be to be one of a ring of several, must be formed on a kind of scale or diapason, which will give the height, aperture, and thickness of the shell necessary to the several tones required. The exterior of the bell is formed into rings fashioned into mouldings, and sometimes inscriptions, mottos, and figures are also added to adorn its exterior; all these are previously modelled and afterwards moulded in wax upon the core. The clapper or tongue is not properly a part of the bell, and is furnished by other hands; with us it is usually of iron, and is suspended in the middle of the bell. The Chinese make it of wood, leaving a hole under the cannon of the bell to increase its sound. Our proportions of bells consist in making the diameter fifteen times as thick as the brim, and its length twelve times. The bell itself consists of its sounding bow, which is terminated by an inferior circle, which diminishes thinner and thinner as it approaches to the brim or that part on which the clapper strikes, and which is required to be left rather thicker than the rest both above and below; also the outward sinking or properly the waist of the bell, or the point under which it grows wider to the brim; and the upper vase, or top or dome of the bell, or that part which is above the waist. The pallet is the inside of the vase or dome to which the clapper is suspended. The vent and hollowed branches of metal which unite with the cannon to receive the iron keys by which the bell is hung to its beam of support, where it must be exactly counterpoised. The height of a bell is in proportion to its diameter as twelve is to fifteen, or in the proportion of the fundamental sound to its third major, from which it follows that the sound of a bell is principally composed of the sound of its extremity or brim as a fundamental of the sound of the crown, and which is an octave to it, and that of the height, which is a third. To mould a bell for casting, the following preparations must be made. Earth must be collected, and that which is most cohesive is the best, and it must be well ground and sifted. Brick or stone must be obtained for the mine, with which it must be stained. Horse-dung, hair, and hemp, must be mixed with the earth, to render the composition for moulding more firm and binding. The wax to mould the inscriptions, coats of arms, and other insignia about the outer surface of the bell: also tallow must be mixed with the wax in equal proportions, to make it mould more freely; when mixed, a slight layer of the compound is put upon the model or outer mould, previously to any of the ornaments being applied to it. A scaffold is raised upon tressels round the mine, upon which is placed the earth grossly diluted with water, to make it mix better with the dung; and, last of all, shelves are to be placed, on which the models, &c., of the different orna ments or inscriptions to be cast upon the bell are put. A hole is now dug of an adequate depth to contain the mould of the bell, together with the case of it, or cannon, under ground, and about six inches below the level of the ground of the foundry. It must be wide enough to allow of a free passage between the mould and walls, or between one mould and another when several bells are to be cast. At the centre of the hole a stake is erected, which is fixed firmly in the ground; this supports an iron peg, on which the pivot of the second branch of the compasses of construction turns: these compasses are the chief instruments for making the mould, and consist of two legs joined to a third at its apex. The stake is surrounded by solid brick-work, of about six inches in height and of the diameter of the bell; this is called the mill-stone. The parts of the mould consist of the core, the model of the bell, and the shell. When the outer surface of the core is formed, it is raised up with bricks, which are laid in courses of equal height upon a layer of earth; as each brick is laid the work is brought near to the branch of the compasses on which the curve of the core is shaped, so as that there may remain between it and the curve the distance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers of cement. The building of the core is continued to the top, leaving only an opening for the coals to be put in to bake the core. This work is covered with a layer of cement made of earth and horsedung, and on which is moved the compass of construction, to make it of an even smoothness every where. Having finished the first layer in this way, the fire is put into the core by filling it half with coals through an opening kept shut during the baking, and with a cake of earth which has been separately baked. The first fire consumes the stake, and it is left in the core a half and sometimes a whole day: the first layer having become thoroughly dry, it is covered with a second, also a third and fourth, each being surrounded with a board and also the compasses, and also thoroughly dried before another is proceeded on. The core being thus finished, the compasses are taken to pieces with the intention of cutting away the thickness of the model, which when done they are again put in their places to begin another piece of the mould. This piece consists of a mixture of earth and hair applied with the hand upon the core in several cakes, these all close together if properly applied. This part of the work is finished afterwards in several additional layers of cement of the same matter smoothed by the compasses, and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The first layer of the model is a mixture of wax and tallow, which is spread over the whole. When the work has so far proceeded, the inscriptions or other insignia intended to be cast upon the bell are applied, for doing which a pencil is used dipped in a vessel of wax melted in a chafing dish; this is done for every letter, or figure intended to be upon the bell. Before the shell is begun, the compasses are taken to pieces, in order to cut away all the wood that fills the place of the thickness which is intended to be given to the shell. When this is done and all is clear, the shell is begun, the first layer of which is the same earth sifted very fine. While it is tempering with water, it is mixed up with cow-hair to make it cohere; the whole, being a third cullis, is gently poured on the model, and fills exactly all the sinuosities of the figures; and this is repeated till the whole is two lines in thickness upon the model; when these layers are properly dried they cover it with a second of the same matter, but somewhat thicker than those previously laid on; the compasses are now tried and a fire is lighted in the core, so as to melt off the wax of the inscription, &c.; after which the layers of the shell are proceeded in by means of the compasses. There is now to be added to the composition a quantity of hemp, which is spread upon the layers and afterwards smoothed upon the board of the compasses. The shell varies from four to five inches lower than the millstone before observed, but surrounds it quite close, and prevents the extravasation of the metal. The wax should be taken out before melting the metal. The case of the bell requires a separate work, which is done during the drying of the several incrustations of the cements. It has seven rings; the last is called the bridge, and united to the others, it being a perpendicular support to strengthen the curves. It has an aperture at its top to admit an iron peg and bent at its bottom, and this is introduced into two holes in the beam fastened with two strong iron keys. The rings are modelled with masses of beaten earth, that are dried in the fire in order to have them hollow. The rings are gently pressed upon a layer of earth and cow-hair to about one half of their depth, and then taken out, and care should be taken not to break the mould. This operation is repeated twelve times for twelve half moulds, that is, two and two united make the hollow of the six rings; the same is done for the hollow of the bridge. They are all united together upon the open place left for the coals to be put into the oven. The rings which are to form the ears are put first into this open place, with the iron ring to support the clapper of the bell. After which a round cake of clay is make to fill up the diameter of the thickness of the core. This cake after having been baked is placed upon the opening, and fastened by a thin mortar spread over it, which binds the cover close to the core. The hollow of the mould is filled with an earth sufficiently moist to fix itself on the place which is strewed at several times upon the cover of the core; it is then beaten gently with a pestle, and afterwards smoothed by a workman at top with a wooden trowel dipped in water. Upon this cover, which is afterwards to be taken off, is assembled the hollow of the rings; and, when every thing is in its proper place, the outside of the hollows are strengthened with mortar, in order to bind them to the bridge and keep them steady, and at the bottom by means of a cake of the same mortar, and which fills up the whole aperture of the shell. This is left to dry, that it may afterwards be removed without breaking. To make room for the heated metal, the rings are taken out of the hollows in the mould, as it is in these holJows that the metal is to pass as it enters into the voids in the mould. The shell being thus unloaded of its rings, the mill-stone is arranged by having placed under it five or six pieces of wood of about two feet long, and thick enough to reach almost to the lower part of the shell; between these and the mould wooden wedges are driven, in order to shake the shell from off the model, so as to be pulled away and removed up out of the pit. When this and the wax are removed, the model and layer of earth are arranged for the founding, as it is through these the melted metal must pass into the hollows made by the rings, and which are between the shell and core. The inside of the shell is last of all dried by burning straw under it, this helps to smooth the surface of the bell. The shell is put in the place so as to leave the same interval between it and the core as was before; and before the hollows of the rings on the cap are put on again two vents are made, which are united to the rings, and also to each other, by a mass of baked cement; after which this mass of the cap is put on, the rings and the vent over the bell are soldered to the cap by cement; which is dried by gradual heat by covering it with burning coals. So much having been done, the pit surrounding the whole is filled up with earth, being pressed strongly all the time of putting in close round the mould. The furnace has a place for the fire and another to contain the metal; the fire-place has a large chimney with a spacious ash-hole. The furnace which contains the metal is vaulted, and its bottom is made of earth rammed down, the rest is built of brick-work. It has four apertures, the first of which admits the flame projected by the fire to reverberate, the second is closed by a stopple, which is opened for the metal to run through; the other two are to separate the dross and scoriæ by allowing the attendant of the furnace to introduce a wooden rake through it for the purpose. These apertures also pass the thick smoke. The ground or floor of the furnace is built sloping for the metal to run down. When the metal is fused and ready to fill the shell, which should be examined minutely in every part to see if it be dry and ready to receive it; when all is deemed ready, the metal is suffered to run into the shell by the apertures prepared to admit it, after which it is allowed to fix and cool. It is then taken out, examined, and cleaned, in a similar manner to what has been before explained for brass and bronze castings. The theory of the sound of bells is noticed in our article of that name; together with several curious facts of their history. See BELL. The method of forming the profile of a bell, previous to its being cast, in which the proportion of the several parts may be seen, is as follows: the thickness of the brim C 1, of the diagram, is the foundation of every other measure, and is divided into three equal parts. First, draw the line HD, which represents the diameter of the bell; bisect it in F, and erect the perpendicular Ff; let D F and HF be also bisected in E and G, and two other perpendiculars Ee, Ga, be erected at F and G; GE will be the diameter of the top or upper vase, i. e. the diameter of the top will be half that of the bell; and it will, therefore. be the diameter of a bell 30 which will sound an octave to the other. Divide the diameter of the bell, or the line HD, into fifteen equal parts, and one of these will give C1 the thickness of the brim: divide again each of these fifteen equal parts into three other equal parts, and then form a scale. From this scale take twelve of the larger divisions or 2-15ths of the whole scale in the compass, and setting one leg in D describe an arc to cut the line Ee in N; draw N D, and divide this line into twelve equal parts; at the point 1 erect the perpendicular 1C10, and C 1 will be the thickness of the brim 1-15th of the diameter; draw the line CD; bisect DN; and at the point of the bisection 6, erect the perpendicular 6 K=1 of the larger divisions on the scale. With an opening of the compass equal to twice the length of the scale, or thirty brims, setting one leg in N, describe an arc of a circle, and with the same leg in K, and the same opening, describe another arc to intersect the former: on this point of intersection as a centre, and, with a radius equal to thirty brims, describe the arc NK; in 6 K produced take KB of the larger measure of the scale or one-third of the brim, and on the same centre with the radius 30 brims describe an arc A B parallel to N K. For the arc BC, take twelve divisions of the scale or twelve brims in the compass; find a centre, and from that centre, with this opening, describe the arc BC, in the same manner as N K or A B were described. There are various ways of describing the arc Kp, some describe it on a centre at the distance of nine brims from the points p and K; others, as it is done in the figure, on a centre at the distance only of seven brims from those points. But it is necessary first to find the point p, and to determine the rounding of the bell p 1. For this purpose, on the point C as a centre, and D with the radius C 1, describe the arc 1pn; bisect the part 1 2, of the line Dn, and, erecting the perpendicular pm, this perpendicular will cut the arc 1pn in m, which terminates the rounding 1 p. Some founders make the bendings, K, a third of a brim lower than the middle of the line DN; others make the part C 1 D more acute, and instead of making C 1 perpendicular to DN at 1, draw it out one-sixth of a brim higher, making it still equal to one brim; so that the line 1 D is longer than the brim C 1. In order to trace out the top part, Na, take in the compass eight divisions of the scale or eight brims; and on the points N and D as centres, describe arcs to intersect each other in 8: on this point 8, with a radius of eight brims, describe the arc N 6; this arc will be the exterior curve of the top or crown; on the same point 8 as a centre, and with a radius equal to 73 brims, describe the arc Ae, and this will be the interior curve of the crown; and its whole thickness will be onethird of the brim. As the point 8 does not fall in the axis of the bell, a centre M may be found in the axis by describing, with the interval of eight brims on the centres D and H, arcs which will intersect in M; and this point may be made the centre of the inner and outer curves of the crown as before. The thickness of the cap, which strengthens the crown at Q, is about one-third of the thickness of the brim; and the hollow branches or ears about one-sixth of the diameter of the bell. The height of the bell is in proportion to its diameter as twelve to fifteen, or in the proportion of the fundamental sound to its third major; whence it follows that the sound of a bell is principally composed of the sound of its extremity or brim, as a fundamental of the sound of the crown which is an octave to it, and of that of the height which is a third. FOUNT, n. s. Lat. fons, from fundo, FOUNTAIN, n.s. to pour out, and signiFOUNTAINLESS, adj. (fies the spring which is FOUNT FUL, adj. visible on the earth. A well; a spring; whether natural or artificial: a jet; a spout of water: the head or first spring of water; hence, metaphorically, original; first principle; first cause. The adjectives are in direct opposition as to meaning. Unkindnesse past they gan of solace treat, And bathe in pleasaunce of the joyous shade, Which shielded them against the boyling heat, Spenser's Faerie Queene. Shakspeare. Henry VIII. Fountains I intend to be of two natures; the one that sprinkleth or spouteth water; the other a fair receipt of water, without fish, or slime, or mud. Bacon. do not return so frequently. Thus the o and i, for instance, are always in greater quantity than the k or z. This difference will be best perceived from a proportional comparison of those letters with themselves, or some others. FOUNTAIN. Among the ancients, fountains were generally esteemed sacred; but some were held to be so in a more particular manner. The goods effects received from cold baths gave springs and rivers this high reputation for the But when the fountful Ida's top they scaled with salutary influence was supposed to proceed from For the eye In love drinks all life's fountains (save tears) dry. Byron. FOUNT, or FONT, among printers, &c., a set or quantity of characters or letters of each kind, cast by a letter-founder, and sorted. When we say, a founder has cast a fount of bourgeois, of long primer, of brevier, &c., we mean that he has cast a set of characters of these kinds. A complete fount not only includes the running letters, but also large and small capitals, single letters, double letters, lines, numeral characters, points, commas, &c. Founts are large and small, according to the demand of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight, or by sheets. When the printer orders a fount of 400, he means that the fount should weigh 400 pounds. When he demands a fount of eight sheets, it is understood, that with that fount he should be able to compose eight sheets, or sixteen forms, without being obliged to distribute; and the founder-takes his measure accordingly. The letter founders have a kind of list, or tariff, whereby they regulate their founts; some letters being in much more use, and oftener repeated than others, their cells or boxes should be better filled and stored than those of the retters which some presiding deity. Particular accidents might occasion some to be held in greater veneration than others. It was customary to throw little pieces of money into those springs, lakes, or rivers, which were esteemed sacred, to render the presiding divinities propitious; as the touch of a naked body was supposed to pollute their hallowed waters. For the phenomena, theory, and origin of fountains or springs, see SPRING. FOUPE, v. a. To drive with sudden impetuosity. A word out of use. We pronounce, by the confession of strangers, as smoothly and moderately as any of the northern nations, who foupe their words out of the throat with fat and full spirits. Camden. FOUQUIERES (James), an eminent painter, born at Antwerp in 1580. He received his chief instructions from Velvet Brughel; and applied himself to the study of landscapes, and visited Rome and Venice to improve himself in coloring. His works are said to be nearly equal to those of Titian. He was much caressed at the elector Palatine's court, and afterwards spent several years in France; where his works met with universal approbation, and where he painted several pictures in the gallery of the Louvre, for which Louis XIII. conferred on him the honor of knighthood. This mark of distinction made him insolent, and his conduct was so bad to Nicolo Poussin, as to compel that incomparable artist to leave France. Fouquieres himself fell afterwards into disgrace, and died in poverty at Paris, in 1659. FOUR, adj. FOURFOLD, adj. FOURFOOTED, adj. to quadrupeds having four feet. He shall restore the lamb fourfold, because he had no pity. 2 Sam. xii. 6. Twice Sax. reopen. two: fourfold is four times told: fourfooted, applied And thou shalt understond, that a man suffereth foure maner of grevances in outward thinges; ayenst tiences. the whiche foure, he must have foure maner of paChaucer. The Persones Tale. Augur Astylos, whose art in vain From fight dissuaded the fourfooted train, Now beat the hoof with Nessus on the plain. Dryden. Just as I wished, the lots were cast on four ; Myself the fifth. Pope's Odyssey. FOURBE, n. s. Fr. A cheat; a tricking fellow. Not in use. Jove's envoy, through the air, Brings dismal tidings; as if such low care Could reach their thoughts, or their repose disturb! Thou art a false impostor, and a fourbe. Denham. |