stated, is due to the fact that the large cattle-producing areas of South America and Australia supply dressed meat to European countries at a lower price than the United States.

Hog products, however, have always formed a major portion of the total meat and meat products exported from the United States. This is due to the fact that the United States is the only country where corn is one of the principal grain crops, and where a surplus of pork is produced. The export trade in pork was developed during the latter part of the last century. As early as 1880 approximately one billion, two hundred and fifty million pounds of pork products were exported. In the early eighties there was a marked falling off in the total exports of pork products from the United States, due to the embargoes placed upon American pork by a number of European countries because of unsatisfactory meat-inspection regulations in this country. With improved meat-inspection service, the export trade in pork increased to one billion, six hundred million pounds in 1898.

The export of pork products, especially hams and bacon, was heavy during the World War period. The total amount of pork and pork products exported in 1919 was two billion, six hundred and fifty million pounds, consisting of about thirty-five per cent lard and the balance cured pork. During the reconstruction period, due to the low foreign exchange and the high price of pork in America, the exports decreased to one and a half billion pounds in 1922. In 1923 the total export of pork products was about two billion pounds, of which amount more than one billion pounds was lard, the greatest amount of lard ever exported. The amount of pork and lard exported represents about fifteen per cent of the total production and serves as a stabilizing factor on our pork markets.

Summary. It will be noted that a greater amount of capital and labor is invested in the meat industry in one form or another than in any other enterprise. Interested in the meat industry are the livestock breeders and feeders, the meat-packers, retail meat-dealers, and meat-consumers.

With such a widespread use and interest in meat it can be seen that meat is man's natural food. Thackeray once said, speaking of beef as man's food, "It is meat I would eat were I going to do battle with any mortal foe." There are many foods that contain some of the food properties of meat and the cell-building proteins, which form about twenty per cent of all meat. This fact does not

THOUGHT QUESTIONS

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make these foods meat substitutes. Such foods can be used to advantage in supplementing meat in the diet, but they do not possess in the same completely digestible form, the body-building, tissue-repairing, energizing, strength-giving, blood-enriching, disease-resisting qualities, as does good wholesome meat."

THOUGHT QUESTIONS

1. Why is meat an important article of food in the diet?

2. Name the zoological classes of animals that are used for meat. 3. What is the per capita consumption of meat in the United States? Of what is this composed?

4. Name the countries consuming the largest amount of meat per capita. 5. What factors influence the amount of meat consumed in the different countries?

6. Compare the meat production and consumption areas in the United States. Give reasons for their location.

7. What influence did the development of modern refrigeration have on the development of the meat-packing industry?

8. How many meat animals are slaughtered annually in the United States? How does the meat-packing industry of the United States rank with other important industries?

9. How has the export of meat and meat products from the United States been of importance in the development of the livestock industry?

10. Why are pork and lard important export products?

Б

For detailed statement of production and exports of meat products see Appendix.

CHAPTER II

MEAT AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

TECHNICALLY the term "meat" is used to designate only those portions of the various animals used for food, such as the muscle, fatty tissue, and some glands, as the liver, heart, and sweetbreads. In commercial circles, however, the term "meat" includes all portions of the dressed carcass, as muscle tissue, connective tissue, fat, lymphatic glands, the edible organs, and the bones. While the bones are not edible, they are sold with the surrounding muscles as meat. In this text the term "meat" will be used in this broader commercial sense.

Structure. The general form and structure of the muscle is that of a number of muscle fibres lying parallel to each other and held or bound together by connective tissue. Intermingled with these bundles of muscle fibre are numerous delicate veins, arteries, lymphatics, and nerves. The numerous striated fibres composing the muscle tissue are tube-like structures which taper toward each end and form a single cell. The contents of these cells are known as "sarcous elements," and the membrane forming the walls is known as 66 sarcolemma." It is in the cell contents that marked changes take place when the animal is slaughtered. These changes serve to differentiate muscle in both its chemical and physical properties from that of any other tissue in the body. According to Douglas,1 the contents of the muscle cells in living animals are neither of a marked alkaline or acid character. Immediately after the animal is slaughtered, however, sarcolactic acid forms, which causes the tissues to become acid in character. This condition exists until putrefaction sets in, when the ammonia thrown off by the organisms of putrefaction causes the chemical reaction to be alkaline in character. Muscle tissue is one of the most highly specialized of the different tissues in the body, and is capable of what is looked upon as a special function; namely, that of contractility. It is thought that this specialized power renders the muscle, in common with some of the other body cells, more liable Douglas: The Meat Industry and Meat Inspection.

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to be affected by deleterious agents than the less specialized tissues, such as the bones and skin.

Fat Tissues.-Fatty tissue is found in practically every portion of the animal body. It appears in groups of cells. The amount of fatty tissue increases with the degree of finish in the carcass. From the point of view of the commercial meat trade, it serves the purpose of providing additional weight and increases the palatability and tenderness of the meat. The fatty tissue also aids in retaining the moisture of the muscle tissues of a carcass. A carcass that is low in fatty tissue loses its moisture more rapidly, causing a greater loss in weight.

In general, fat is opaque, and white or yellowish white in color. There is very little if any blood in the fatty tissue. The melting point of fat varies, depending upon the class of domestic animal from which the fat is secured and the method of feeding followed previous to slaughtering. The melting point of the fat of sheep and cattle is higher than that of swine. The amount of stearin and olein present very materially governs the consistency of the fat in the carcass. If there is a large amount of stearin in the fat, the melting point of the fat is high and the consistency of the fat firm. Where there is a large amount of olein present, the fat is soft and the melting point is much lower.

The color and condition of the fat from different animals vary. The fat from well-fattened cattle should be white, firm, and brittle. It hardens very rapidly after the animal has been slaughtered. According to Douglas,2 bovine fat contains about one part of liquid to three parts of solid fat, melting at a temperature of 106 to 122 degrees F. The age and condition of the animal influences to some extent the color and texture of the fat. The fat from old cows, carcasses from the dairy breeds, and from unfinished cattle is usually yellowish in color and lacking in quality and firmness. The fat in veal carcasses is usually of a pale gray or reddish-white color. The kidney fat from calves varies from pure white to a dark gray color, depending upon the age and condition. Calves that have been fed on whole milk show a much whiter fat of more quality than younger calves or those fed on calf meal or skim-milk. Good bovine fat should have no odor.

The natural fat of swine is pure white, but this varies slightly depending upon the method of feeding followed. The consistency 2 Douglas: The Meat Industry and Meat Inspection.

of pork fat also varies, usually being firm and melting between 104 and 122 degrees F. Swine fed on feeds that contain a considerable amount of oil, such as mast, soybeans, peanuts, etc., will produce a carcass that has fat with a tendency to be soft. The texture of pork fat is fine and smooth, showing these qualities to a greater extent than the fat from sheep and cattle.

Sheep fat is white, firm, and odorless; possessing a melting point that ranges from 86 to 122 degrees F.

Color and Texture. The color of the muscle and fatty tissue is the identification tag of the meat from the various animals. The red color of the muscle tissue is due to the red pigment in the blood called "hæmoglobin." In beef, the muscular tissue should be a bright cherry red when first cut and exposed to the air. The tissue should be firm, but yield to the touch. The muscle tissue from well-fattened animals is intermingled with fat and has the appearance of being "marbled." The color of the fat should be white, and the texture firm and brittle, indicating quality. In beef carcasses of inferior quality the muscle tissue is usually darker in color and the fat a dark or yellowish tinge. The meat from old milk cows as a rule shows coarser fibres and a lighter coloration than the meat from young animals. The connective tissue is not so firm, but is coarse in texture and stands out more prominently than in young animals. The fat is frequently yellowish in color and lacks firmness. Meat from old bulls is dark copper red in color and very coarse-grained. It is tough with very little fat, and has the appearance of being dry. Meat from young bulls does not differ materially from steer or heifer carcasses.

The meat from calves is generally pale gray with a reddish tinge and not intermingled with fat. The texture is usually soft and not so firm as in the case of beef. The kidney fat, in wellfattened veal, is white and brittle. In skim-milk-fed or poorly developed veal, the color of the kidney fat is a reddish yellow.

The color of the muscle tissue in lamb or mutton is a light or brick red. The fat is firm, white, brittle, and fine-grained. The meat in carcasses from old sheep, such as old ewes and bucks, is very dark red and is coarser-grained, possessing less fat, which is also of a darker color and coarser-grained than in the carcasses from young animals. The meat from old sheep is not only darker in color, but contains less moisture, producing meat that is dry and less palatable.