ZIZ asked who was buried there, and being informed that it was Zizka, he cried out in Latin, Phui, phui, mala bestia, quæ mortua etiam post centum annos terret vivos!' (Lo, the wicked beast, one hundred years dead, and still frightens the living!) The emperor was actually so frightened that he left the church immediately, and would not stay the night at Czaslau, but proceeded on his journey. There is a common but idle tale that Zizka on his deathbed ordered his skin to be tanned, and put over a drum in order to frighten his enemies after his death; and it is also said that the Hussites used that drum in many a battle: all this is fabulous. 789 After Zizka's death the negotiations with the emperor were broken off: the Taborites chose Procop the Holy for their leader; the Orebites, Krussina; and the Orphanites, Procop the Little, who continued that awful war for eleven years more, till it was finished by the treaty of Prague, in 1435, in consequence of which Siegmund was acknowedged king of Bohemia. (Millauer, Diplomatisch-historische Aufsätze über Johann Zizka von Trocznow, Prague, 1824; Koelerus, Eulogium Joh. de Trocznow cognomento Ziskae, Göttingen, 1742; The Life of Zizka, in Gilpin, The Lives of John Wiccliff and of the most eminent of his Disciples, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and Zizka.) ZITTAU, a town of Upper Lusatia, in the kingdom of Saxony, in 50° 52′ N. lat. and 14° 45′ E. long., is pleasantly situated in a small valley on the river Mandau, It is surnot far from its junction with the Neisse. Having been nearly rounded with walls and a moat. destroyed in 1757 by the Austrians, who besieged it, on which occasion 600 houses were burnt, it was rebuilt in a much better manner, and is reckoned, after Dresden and Leipzig, one of the handsomest towns in Saxony. It has 1100 houses, nearly all of stone, and 8500 inhabitants, all Protestants. It is the centre of the linen manufacture, and of the linen and damask trade of Saxony, and, on account of its great traffic, has been called Little Leipzig. There are manufactures of linens, woollens, cotton yarn, leather, dyeing-houses, calico-printing establishments, bleachinggrounds, &c. The magistrates have extensive privileges, with jurisdiction over 45,000 inhabitants, for thirty-five mostly large manufacturing villages, and large estates, belong to the town. The public revenue is therefore considerable, and all the institutions well provided for. There are five churches, a gymnasium, an admirable town freeschool, a seminary for schoolmasters, a school of industry and Sunday-school, numerous well-conducted charitable institutions, an orphan asylum, a savings-bank, the rich hospital of St. James, with a church annexed to it, and a theatre. Some of the churches are handsome buildings, especially the new church of St. John. The city library, the largest in Upper Lusatia, contains 13,000 volumes; a cabinet of natural history; and many curiosities, among which are the letters patent granted on the 11th of June, 1609, by the emperor Rudolph II. to the Bohemian Protestants, securing to them the free exercise of their religion. The revocation of these letters patent by the emperor Mathias, in 1608, was one of the first and principal causes of the Thirty Years' War. There is still a Bohemian Protestant community of 1000 persons in the suburb, who have a church in the town. The town is surrounded by fine public promenades, planted with trees, from which there are extensive views towards Bohemia. The export trade is very considerable: that of linens and damasks is to the amount of 500,000 rix dollars annually. There is likewise a profitable transit-trade to Bohemia. Near Zittau is the Lausche, a mountain belonging half to Bohemia and half to Saxony, from the summit of which there is a very fine and extensive prospect of Upper Lusatia, and part of Meissen, Bohemia, and Silesia. (Engelhardt, Vaterlandskunde im Königreiche Sachsen; Brockhaus, Conversations Lexicon ; Cannabich, Lehrbuch.) ZIZA'NIA (from Ziláviov, zizánium), the Greek name of Lolium temulentum, the modern Darnel. This plant has always been troublesome amongst wheat, and is mentioned in the New Testament, and in the English version zizanium is translated tares.' The name has now been adopted by Gronovius and Linnæus for a very different genus of plants. This practice however cannot be too much condemned, as it has in many cases led to very considerable misunderstanding. This genus is monoecious; the male flowers have no calyx, and their corolla is a 2-valved blunt glume, which Z. aquatica, Canadian Wild Rice, has a pyramidal com- (Cyclopædia of Plants; Smith, in Rees's 'Cyclopædia.) ZIZEL. [SOUSLIK.] ZI'ZYPHUS (from zizouf, the Arabic name of the Lotos; Greek, Livpov), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Rhamnaceæ. It has a 5-cleft spreading calyx; 5 obovate, unguiculate, convolute petals; a pen tagonal flat disk, expanded and adhering to the tube of the calyx; a 2-3-celled ovary immersed in the disk; the styles 2 to 3; the fruit fleshy, containing a 1-2-celled nut; the seeds sessile, compressed, and very smooth. species of this genus are shrubs, with alternate 3-nerved leaves, spiny stipules, and mucilaginous fruit, which is eatable. The Z. vulgaris, the Common Jujube, has ovate, retuse, toothed, smooth leaves; prickles absent or twin; and an ovate oblong drupe. This plant is a native of Syria, from whence it has been introduced into Europe. It is now cultivated in many parts of the south of Europe, where its fruit is known by the name of Jujube. It has yellow-greenish flowers, two or three of which grow together. The fruit is of a blood-red or saffron colour, It is also sold in great and has a sweet granular pulp. In Italy and Spain it is eaten as a dessert when fresh, and in the winter season as a dry sweetmeat. Du Hamel quantities in the markets of Constantinople. The Jujabe is commonly planted by the Turks of Constantinople before their coffee-houses for the sake of its shade. The taste of the fruit is somewhat acid; recommends the general cultivation of the tree on account of its foliage. A syrup made with it is recommended in the flesh is firm, and, when dried, forms an agreeable sweetmeat. coughs and catarrhs, and lozenges of it are used for the same purpose. The fruit does not ripen in Great Britain nor in Paris, but it does in the south of France. This plant was introduced into England in 1640. Although it attains a height of 20 or 30 feet in its native countries, it fers a soil that is dry to one that is moist. It is easily prodoes not grow to anything like that height here. It preby suckers, which it pagated by cuttings of the roots, or throws up in great abundance. The seeds obtained from plants grown in Italy will germinate freely when sown in this country. Z. sinensis, Chinese Jujube, has ovate oblong, acute, nerves; pubescent branches; reflexed petals; twin straight serrated leaves, glabrous, except beneath, along the This plant is a native of prickles; and ovate drupe. China, and has greenish white flowers. It has a brownish, ovate, fleshy fruit, which is eatable, and is sold in the markets of Canton during the autumn. Z. spina-Christi, Christ's Thorn, has ovate, toothed, smooth leaves, pubescent beneath; prickles twin, one straight, the other incurved; the peduncles corymbose; the drupe ovate-globose. This plant is about eight feet high, and is a native of the North of Africa, of Palestine, Etifruit is oblong, about the size of a sloe, and much eaten in opia, and Egypt. The flowers are yellowish green. The Egypt and Arabia., This plant has pliant branches, and is round and surrounded by numerous long filiform tentacula. The Iluanthus Scoticus was found in four fathoms of water in Loch Ryan. 4. Actinia, Linnæus, now restricted to such species as have simple tubular retractile tentacula, and adhere by a broad base. Ehrenberg has separated such Actinic as have a glandular epidermis, under the name of Cribrina. From the glands protrude long filaments, the uses of which are unknown. The tentacula of all the species are (contrary to the supposition of Ehrenberg) perforate at their extremities. [ACTINIA.] The subgenus Adamsia has been constituted, by Professor E. Forbes, for the reception of the curious parasitical Actinia maculata, which envelopes the mouths of dead shells, generally selecting such as have been previously invested by the Alcyonidium echinatum. As such shells are frequently inhabited at the same time by the Hermit Crab, not a few naturalists have mistaken the coincidence for some necessary and mysterious friendship of the zoophyte for the crustacean. 5. Anthea, Johnston, includes such Actiniæ as have not the power of retracting their tentacula. Several of the species grow to a large size. Example, Anthea Tuedia, Johnston, Brit. Zoophytes,' p. 222, fig. 33. 6. Actinoloba, Blainville (Metridium, Oken). Species in which the oral disk is divided at the margin into more or less rounded lobes, which bear short simple tentacula. Example, A. dianthus, Phil. Trans.,' lvii., tab. 19, fig. 8. 7. Capnca, Forbes, of which one species only is known. The disk is round with several circles of exceedingly short tubercular retractile tentacula, and the body is in part invested with a peculiar epidermis, which is divided at the margin into eight lobes. 6 Example, C. sanguinea. Annals of Natural History,' vol. vii., pl. 1, fig. 1. Irish Sea. C. Sea-Anemonies having more or less pinnate tentacula. 8. Actineria, Quoy and Gaimard. Such as have the entire disk covered by very small villose ramified tentacula. Example, A. villosa, Quoy and Gaimard. Voy. Astrolabe, Zooph.,' pl. 49, figs. 1, 2. Tonga Islands. 9. Actinodendron, Quoy and Gaimard. Species having very long arborescent tentacula disposed in one or two series on the oral disk. Example, A. alcyonoideum. Voy. Ast.,' pl. 48, figs. 1,2. This animal is more than a foot in height, and secretes a stinging mucus. 10. Thalassianthus, Leuckart. One species only known, the T. aster, an inhabitant of the Red Sea, figured in the plates to Rüppell's 'Voyage.' Its tentacula are numerous, short, and pinnate. It is probably identical with the Epicladia of Ehrenberg. The tentacula are of 11. Heterodactyla, Ehrenberg. two sorts, some simple and others pinnate. Example, H. Hemprichii. Red Sea. 12. Megalictis, Ehrenberg, founded on an animal from the same locality with the last, and characterized by having all the tentacula arborescent, but the internal ones are the larger and more pinnate, and have their exremities hollowed into a sort of socket. Example, Megalictis Hemprichii. Family III. Zoanthidæ. The genera of this family are few, and the animals included in them have by some been mistaken for Alcyonia. 1. Zoanthus, Cuvier.-The body is elongated, com and pedunculated, springing from a base common t several individuals. The mouth is linear and transve in the centre of a disk bordered by short slender tentaz Example, Z. Solanderi. West Indies. 2. Mamillifera, Lesueur (Polythoe, Lamoureux. The body is coriaceous, short, and mammiliform; slightly elarged at its buccal extremity, and provided with severa rows of marginal tentacula. It is subpedunculated at the base, and springs from a common expansion. Example, M. auriculata. West India Islands. 1, Zoanthus Solanderi; 2, Corticifera glareola; 3, Mamillifera auric 3. Corticifera, Lesueur. Body short, cylindric, hav a longitudinal mouth surrounded by petaliform tenta at one extremity, and merged at the other into a com mass with numerous similar individuals, so that a s poliferous crust is formed. Thus there is a transit through this genus from the soft Actinia to the corals. Example, C. glareola. Guadaloupe. The best account of the Zoanthidæ, with excellent figures, will be found in the papers of Lesueur, in the first volume of the Transactions of the Philadelp Academy.' 6 Family IV. Madreporida. The animals which form the harder and larger cons closely resemble the Actinia. Generally, as far as they have been examined, there is but little variety amo them; but judging from the differences presented by e or two types, it is probable that future researches show a greater diversity of form in this family than is present admitted. Thus though the usual form of t coral animal is that of a cylinder terminated by a disk su rounded by simple tentacula, in Fungia we have the ter tacula irregularly scattered over a broad expansion; a in Desmophyllum they are reduced to the appearance t irregular folds. Until lately it was supposed that no traces of pre-existing species of the soft Zoophytes existed; and indeed the structure of the Actiniada rendered it improbable that any such should be found. Professor Bailey however has described, in the Boston Journal of Natural History' (1843), some microscopic fossils, which he considers as analogous to the spicule which are found in the epidermis of certain American species of Actiniadæ. a universal warm climate during the earlier epochs of the world's history. ZOBEL, BENJAMIN, the inventor of marmotinto, was born in 1762, at Memmingen in Bavaria. He received his education at the government school of that city, and acquired the rudiments of drawing from one of the monks belonging to the convent of Ottobeuern. In 1781 he went to Amsterdam, where he resided for two years, occupying himself chiefly in portrait-painting. In 1783 he came to London, where he formed acquaintance with Morland and Schweickhardt, the latter of whom was employed at Windsor Castle by George III.'s 'table-decker.' It was then the custom to ornament the royal dinner-table by having a silver plateau extending along the centre, on which were strewed various coloured sands or marble dust, in fanciful designs of fruit, flowers, arabesque-work, &c. For this an artist of considerable talent and of great freedom of hand was required. On the retirement of Schweickhardt, Zobel was appointed; and he continued to fill the office for a considerable period. Ornamenting the royal table in the manner just described was a daily occupation, the sands not being cemented by any substance. From this occupation arose the idea in the mind of Zobel of producing a finished and permanent picture, by the use of some substance by which the sands might be fixed. After various experiments, a composition (in which gum-arabic and spirits of wine formed the chief ingredients) was found to answer the best. The subject of the picture having been designed either on pannel or milled board, a coating of the glutinous substance was spread over it; the different. coloured sands were then used in a similar manner as that employed in decking the royal table, viz. by strewing them from a piece of card held at various elevations, according to the strength or softness of the tint required. Thus was formed a picture, not subject to decay, and perfectly permanent in all its parts, and this was called by the inventor, Marmotinto. Some of the best specimens of this peculiar art were formerly in the possession of the late Duke of York, but were sold, at his death, at Oatlands. Several are still among the collections of paintings belonging to the Duke of Northumberland and Sir Willoughby Gordon. Painting on gold and silver grounds in transparent colours for the representation of cabinets of humming-birds, &c. was also practised with eminent success by Zobel. He died in 1831. ZO'DIAC (in Greek ¿ Zodiaκóg kúkλog, 'the Zodiac circle') is a name given to a zone of the visible heavens, extending in breadth to certain equal distances on both sides of a great circle of the celestial sphere, in the plane of the earth's orbit produced. This circle, with which the apparent annual path of the sun coincides, is called the ecliptic; at present it makes with the plane of the earth's equator an angle equal to about 23° 27′ 35", and it is divided into twelve equal parts, called signs, which receive their denominations from those of the figures intended to designate the constellations or groups of stars about it. Most of the figures being those of animals, the name of zodiac (from potov, zódion, the diminutive of Lyov, zöon, an animal') has, in consequence, been applied to the zone. The planes of the orbits of all the planets, when produced to the celestial sphere, are supposed to be comprehended within the breadth of the zodiac, and that breadth is determined by two small circles parallel to the plane of the ecliptic. Before the discovery of the planets Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, the greatest inclination of the orbit of a planet to the ecliptic scarcely exceeded 7 degrees, and therefore the breadth of the zodiacal zone was imagined to be about 16 degrees, or 8 degrees on each side northward and southward of the ecliptic. The orbit of Pallas (that which deviates most from the ecliptic) is inclined about 35 degrees to that plane; and it might now be understood that the breadth of the zone is about 70 degrees. The line in which the plane of the ecliptic intersects that of the terrestrial equator, being produced indefinitely, Fossils of the family Milleporide are very abundant, cuts the celestial sphere in two points diametrically oppoand among the most important of organic remains, con-site to each other; and one of these meeting the heavens, sidered in a geological point of view. In Mr. Morris's Catalogue of British Fossils (1843), nearly 150 species are enumerated as described remains in British strata. Of these by far the greater part are derived from the oldest rocks, and are among the strongest evidences we have of P. C., No. 1779. in the age of the earliest Greek astronomy, near certain stars forming a constellation to which the figure of a ram (Aries) was assigned, is generally called the first point of Aries. From this point are reckoned, on the ecliptic, the longitudes of celestial bodies; and on the equator, their VOL. XXVII.-5 I right ascensions. The twelve equal parts or signs into which the ecliptic is divided are distinguished by the names of the constellations which, in the age above alluded to, fell within their respective extents in longitude; and the names both of the signs and constellations are as follow:-Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces. The distribution of all the visible stars into groups or constellations was the first step in laying the foundation of astronomical science. It must have taken place in the earliest ages of the world; and there is the highest degree of probability that the zodiacs of all nations have been derived from a common source, though in passing from one people to another it may be easily conceived that the figures would suffer changes from the vanity or caprice of individuals. Among the antients, the place of the sun in the zodiac served to regulate the seasons of the year; the representations of the figures associated with the groups of stars were almost constant ornaments of the religious edifices; and superstition assigned to the regions of space influences on the lives and characters of men depending upon the qualities of the animals or objects which distinguished the constellations in the corresponding parts of the celestial sphere. The loss of the writings of the antient Babylonians, and the entire destruction of their edifices, have deprived the world of every monument by which light might be thrown on the state of astronomy among a people whose priests, according to Strabo, were mostly engaged in the study of . the science. In fact our information respecting it consists chiefly of the notices given by Ptolemy concerning a few of their observations, and from the evidence of Geminus, Diodorus Siculus states (Biblioth. Histor., ii. 30) that the Babylonians had twelve chief deities, to each of whom they assigned a month, and one of the so-called twelve animals by which he means the twelve parts of the zodiac; and from this it may be inferred that they divided the zodiac into twelve sigus. Sextus Empiricus (Adversus Math., lib. v. makes a like statement, and shows how, by means of a clepsydra, the division was or may have been made. With respect to the astronomica' monuments which adorned their edifices, a few fragments only of stone, having on them figures which may or may not have been intended as representations of those which distinguish the constellations, have been dug up near Bagdad; and the most remarkable of these is one having on its face a solar disk accompanied by a serpent: the figure may have designated Ophiuchus, and it is possible that it may have been part of a Chaldean planisphere. The division of the zodiac into twelve signs may have been originally made for the convenience of distinguishing the portions which the sun passes through in the several months; and a division into twenty-eight parts is alluded to by Geminus (Eloaywyn is barropera which was probably made to denote the space daily described by the moon by her proper motion. The former division was used by the Egyptians, the Greeks, and by all the civilized nations of Asia; and the latter is found amon the Persians, Arabs, Hindus, and Chinese: the twentyeight parts are called the stations or abodes of the moun because this luminary is in some one of them each day. apparently of an astronomical character, are found in several other apartments within the same temple; and in the ceiling of its portico are figures resembling constellations, among which are those of the zodiac disposed in two lines, one near each extremity of the portico, and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the temple. The zodiacal figures in the apartment first mentioned are disposed nearly within the breadth of an annulus formed by two circles, whose common centre is at some distance southward from the centre of the whole; the figure which is conceived to represent Cancer is however within the space inclosed by the interior circumference of the annulus, and nearly opposite the interval between Gemini and Leo; that interval being occupied by a human figure with a bird's head, above which is a bird and certain hieroglyphical symbols. The figure of Cancer is also surmounted by a hieroglyphical symbol, which, according to Visconti, seems to express a proper name. Except the zodiacal figures, scarcely any in the ceiling resemble those which are now assigned to the constellations; and a great effort of the imagination is required to discover in what manner they may be considered as emblems of the latter. From the zodiacal figures only has it been possible to form opinions concerning the nature of the projection employed in the execution of the work, and the epoch to which the aspect of the heavens represented by it is to be referred. epoch. M. Biot afterwards calcu Several indications cas. for want of room. 1' has to true place of the constellation. In other On Risings and α) Δύσεων), and in id, the signs of the to which that band dodecatemories, or mal poem of Aratus the celestial sphere his writer lived about and his poem is a composed by Eudoxus ously, that is, in the Aratus begins with pole of the equator, zodiac, nearly in the -circles of the sphere. |