motors, which will gradually lead to an extension of the tradesman's business. The present extensive system of electrical motors enables a poor man to use mechanical power in his shop, and thus to compete with his wealthy rival. A connection between workshop and factory is established or made possible, since the factory owner will, it is evident, prefer men who have learned in actual contact with machines how to perform skillful manipulations. And whenever new inventions change the aspect of any trade, the men skilled in numerous phases of their work are apt to find occasion for their talents, while those who only understand the mechanical part are easily stranded.

A summary of statistics of the trade schools in Berlin is here appended:

In connection with the foregoing statement of what is done for indus trial education in the city of Berlin, it is interesting to note an American opinion of industrial education in Germany, and its effect upon the success of that Empire in commerce and various domains of industry. The following quotation is an editorial article in the Scientific American (September 26, 1896), which deserves great credit for shrewd observation and candid statement. The article is headed "The secrets of Germany's industrial success."

Perhaps the most notable fact in the industrial world just now is the commanding position which is being won by the German manufacturers and the rapid encroachments which they are making upon the foreign trade of other nations, and particularly upon that of Great Britain. In taking note of this development we must remember that it is nothing new-that it is not the result of a sudden outburst of

energy. It is merely the larger development, the coming of age, of a system which has been steadily at work in Germany for many years. Her industrial triumph, which has come as a surprise to the world at large, and with a rude awakening shock to Great Britain in particular, is no surprise to the German people themselves. In school and college, in workshop and factory, by carefully planned organizations at home and abroad, they have set in motion a system of industrial forces which are now working out the desired results with mechanical regularity and precision.

The German mind is essentially scientific and methodical. It was these qualities that contributed largely to the signal triumph of the German arms in the memorable war of 1870. During the quarter of a century that has intervened since the close of the struggle and the consolidation of the Empire, Germany has been applying the same scientific methods to the arts of peace; and with such success that it begins to look as though her industrial armies were going to occupy the broad fields of international commerce with the same resistless energy with which her battalions marched from Saarbrück to Sedan a quarter of a century ago.

Germany owes her industrial success to her system of scientific training in schools and colleges, to the close fellowship which exists between her factories and her schools, and to her elaborate organizations for the control and development of com

merce.

That the scientific course in German schools was thorough and effective has always been well understood; but it has been reserved for a private letter written by Professor Ostwald, the distinguished German chemist, to his English friend, Professor Ramsay, to open the eyes of the world, and particularly of the English people, who are most nearly affected, to the practical use to which the scientific researches of their specialists are put by the German people. It appears from this letter that there is a close alliance between the German manufacturers and the universities and high-grade technical schools. In the chemical industry, for instance, it seems that splendid inducements are offered to the graduates of technical colleges to enter the laboratories which form part of the equipment of the factories. These young men are engaged, not for the executive work of the establishment, but for purely experimental work in the laboratory. They form a brigade of skilled inventors, who devote themselves to the discovery of improved processes and methods of manufacture

Speaking of this system, Professor Ostwald says:

"The research laboratory in such a work is only different from one in a university by its being more splendidly and sumptuously fitted than the latter. I have heard from the business managers of such works that they have not unfrequently men who have worked for four years without practical success; but if they know them to possess ability, they keep them notwithstanding, and in most cases with ultimate success sufficient to pay the expenses of the former resultless years."

When we bear in mind that "there are often more than one hundred Ph. D.'s in a single manufactory," and that this little army of qualified scientists is occupied solely in "making inventions," we begin to understand why it is that Germany is already preeminent in certain markets of the world, and is likely to become so in others before long. Invention is no longer left to the unaided efforts of the wellmeaning but often uninstructed individual. In the special laboratory there will be no long hours of fruitless search for an object whose supposed existence is based upon ignorance of the first principles of physics or mechanics. In this admirable combination of the skilled theorist and the trained mechanic there is little left to chance, and the development of an art is carried on by the sure and logical process of experiment, invention, and design.

Of scarcely less importance in German industrial economy is her elaborate system for the fostering and extension of trade. This includes the founding, in certain industrial centers, of chambers of commerce. These institutions are intended to deal with questions of home and foreign trade in the broadest possible manner.

"There is no question connected with the development of trade interests, of manufactures, credit capacity of foreign countries, advantages to be obtained by treaty stipulations, injuries resulting from measures adopted by other nations in restraint of trade, which is not thoroughly discussed and carefully considered by the many German chambers of commerce scattered over the country. These bodies report to the minister of commerce with regard to the influence and bearing of all such matters, as they are connected with the commercial interests of the various localities; and by petition or otherwise they often secure action through their minister and the minis. ter of foreign affairs which is of great advantage to them."

As the necessary counterpart of this organization at home, the Germans are about to establish a system of commercial attachés, whose agents shall be specially trained for the service and shall form a recognized part of the national representation in foreign countries. The work of the attaché will be similar to that which is now embodied by our own consuls in their "consular reports," many of which, be it said, are admirable documents and worthy of a wider circulation. He will furnish to the home government a statement in detail of the particular commodities which are required in his district, and will keep it informed of the volume and nature of the trade done there by competitors; and, indeed, he will report any facts which might be of service for dissemination among the various local boards of trade above mentioned.

Visitors to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago will remember the truly magnificent display that was made by Germany, and particularly the collection which figured so prominently in the Liberal Arts Building. It was a special effort, carefully planned and effectively carried out, and German foreign trade is feeling the stimulus of that costly display at the present moment.

Our brief consideration of this subject suggests that, while it more immediately concerns the commercial supremacy of Great Britain, it has also a practical interest for the United States. In our future commercial development and expansion we shall certainly enter into a most active competition with the two nations above mentioned. It is a question which we shall do well to ask ourselves, whether our native inventiveness and mechanical skill should not be stimulated and rendered more efficient by such a triple alliance of science, industry, and organization as is now carrying Germany to the front by leaps and bounds.

SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN THE PEOPLE'S SCHOOLS IN GERMANY.

The question of raising the salaries of teachers has of late been a subject of discussion in legislative bodies of the various German States, especially in Prussia. A bill laid before the Prussian Diet during its session in 1896 regulates the salaries, but in every case it refers to the minimum beginner's salary, and leaves the adjustment of the maximum sum to the communities. The following tables, with explanations, are gathered from an article by Rector J. Tews, of Berlin, who carefully compiles and critically analyzes the educational statisties of his native country from official and private sources. He says: In order to present the situation as it now actually exists in Germany, it is necessary to bring together as many statements as possible. There are varied opinions as to what constitutes the proper pay for elementary school teachers. From some States it was impossible to obtain the statistics, namely, from Alsace-Lorraine, Mecklenburg, Schaumburg-Lippe, and Waldeck. Little irregularities could not be

avoided; they are explained in the text accompanying the tables. It is quite astonishing to see how many teachers are paid minimum salaries. According to the tables from Würtemberg that refer to the year 1891-92, there were 3,406 teachers, of whom 511 were marked as belonging to the eleventh year of service, yet these 511 were still drawing the minimum salary. Besides, Würtemberg had in the same year 1,280 teachers not definitely employed who had been teaching between one and ten years. In Saxony, during the year 1894, Mr. Rocke prepared a statement from which it is seen that among 8,239 teachers there were 1,902 definitely engaged and 336 assistants who were still drawing the lowest salary, which is equal to 28.3 per cent of the whole number of teachers in Saxony and 26 per cent of the assistants. The tables following on pages 153 to 155 are arranged according to the annual increases prescribed by law or governmental regulation.

1. Only the minimum salaries, with regular increases owing to the age and length of service which are required by law, are recorded in this table. No voluntary addition to the salary voted for by communities has been considered. Though these cases are quite numerous, it did not seem to be correct to consider them, inasmuch as it is the object to state the legal requirements only.

2. Wherever in any State, as for instance in Hessia, Gotha, and Weimar, higher salaries are fixed by law for the cities and lower salaries for rural schools, the lower salaries have been inserted in the table in preference to the higher, the latter being in the minority.

3. Where professional teachers, such as assistants, adjuncts, substitutes, etc., receive a salary fixed by law, these salaries have been recorded in the proper column. Where promotion to a definite appointment is not regulated by law, the average provisional period is assumed.

4. Where free fuel is granted in addition to the salary of teachers, 100 marks is added in the salary in the table, and 50 marks to that of assistants. This has been done with statements from Sondershausen and Lübeck, and also Saxony. For Hamburg a different figure had to be taken, namely, 150 marks for teachers and 50 marks for assistants, since these are the actual sums paid.

5. Wherever the teacher acts as organist or sexton and receives extra pay for such work, the pay is not mentioned in the tables, because, practically, it has nothing to do with the actual school work and its remuneration.

Special notes are made with reference to each separate State:

Bavaria: This Kingdom has no maximum salary fixed by law. The law prescribes increases of 90 marks at intervals of five years. After forty years service the Bavarian teachers draw 1,720 marks; after forty-five years, 1,810; after fifty years, 1,900 marks; while the teachers in the Palatinate draw only 1,620, 1,710, and 1,800 marks, respectively. This necessitated a double entry in the table for Bavaria.

In Würtemberg the beginners in the profession draw 620 marks per annum during the first five years, and 790 marks until they reach the tenth year. Aside from the salary, they are provided with a furnished room, fuel, and light. The compiler has estimated the cost of this at 70 marks, hence the figures in the column will be found to be 690 and 860, respectively. Definitely appointed teachers are allowed by law supplies to the amount of 70 marks.

In Saxony the assistants are granted free fuel or a sum of 50 marks. Very few communities in Saxony have gone beyond the minimum salaries prescribed by law. In Baden the candidates, that is, the beginners, receive 800 marks, and after having passed their State examination the salary is increased to 900 marks. For older assistant teachers many communities pay as much as 1,100 marks, which is the beginning salaries of rectors or principals. Rent is calculated at 150 marke ers. Principals in schools with four teachers receive 100 marks school has more than four teachers 200 marks, additional. If the supplementary schools and evening classes the work is paid for by t 100 marks. If he teaches gymnastics an additional 2"

rks is part

teach

the

teachers in small communities act as organists, and some as sextons, their income is increased to a much greater sum than is stated in the table.

In Hessia a new law has been passed which will come into force April 1, 1897. Definite appointment of the teacher is calculated from the date of passing the second State examination, while in other States it is the first examination. This examination is usually passed at the expiration of two years after graduating from the normal schools. In larger communities much higher salaries are paid, but since it is the cbject to show the minimum salaries they are omitted from the table.

Oldenburg: The teachers in Oldenburg are classed as head teachers and assistants. Head teachers are the principals of graded schools and the teachers of ungraded schools in the country; all other teachers are called assistants. The minimum salary of a head teacher is 900 marks, but in the cities 180 to 300 marks are added. To the minimum (or "stock") salary are also added six increases at 75 marks each after five, ten, fifteen, twenty, twenty-five, and thirty years of service, counted from the definite appointment. The teachers are employed temporarily for nearly four years. There is a further classification of the assistants into those of the first and second class. This makes it difficult to calculate the salaries for insertion in the table. The increases are not in most cases regulated by law but depend upon the good will of the authorities in office. Hence the table contains statements for Oldenburg, with reference to the first ten years of service, that may not in every case be correct, but they are the result of careful computation. The higher salaries could not be stated with exactness either, since in most cases a local increase is voted which is rarely less than 300 marks. In graded schools the second teacher draws the salary of a head teacher. The principal receives an indemnity of 90 to 120 marks if his school, or rather his residence, is not provided with an extensive garden in which to raise vegetables and fruit. This indemnity for land is invariably inserted in the table and quoted at 90 marks. The Government of Oldenburg is at present engaged in preparing a bill to regulate the salaries of teachers.

In Weimar there is a distinction made between rural districts and towns of the third, second, and first class. The minimum salary fixed for towns of the third class ranges between 860 and 1,710 marks, in towns of the second class between 890 and 1,860 marks, and in towns of the first class between 920 and 2,010 marks; obtainable after twenty-seven years of service, counted from the day of graduation in the normal school. There is a movement on foot in the duchy to do away with the differences and place the teachers all on the same level with those of towns of the first class. The teachers also claim remuneration for service in church, either as organist or sexton, or whatever other service the church insists upon.

In Brunswick the city teachers have between 750 and 2,100 marks; besides that they enjoy free rent, which in the country is paid "in natura" and is estimated at 150 marks, or an indemnity of 90 marks for the first five years, 120 marks for the second five years, 150 marks for the third five years, and 180 marks after the eighteenth year of service.

In Anhalt the teachers are not paid extra for rent. Where there is a residence for the teacher connected with the schoolhouse, rent is deducted from his stock salary. If he draws less than 1,500 marks, the sum of 60 marks is deducted; if he draws more than 1,500 marks, 90 marks is deducted for the use of the residence. In the table these sums are already deducted. There is a slight difference between the salaries paid in small cities and in larger cities, but the teachers are endeavoring to equalize the salaries and the Government is willing to meet the teachers in this.

In Gotha there is a higher scale of salaries for the three cities, Gotha, Ohrdruf, and Waltershausen, than the table contains. In Coburg the scales for city teachers are considerably higher than those mentioned in the table. In Meiningen the Government gives the teachers an additional salary of from 100 to 200 marks and 200 marks indemnity for rent.

In Altenburg the rural teachers are classed with the teachers of towns of the third